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GEOGRAPHY OF CHINA Oct 96
A. Mountains.
1. NE. Greater Khinghan Mts
2. N Central. Altai Mts.
3. West. Tien Shan (E Russia), Kunlun (Pakistan),
Hindu Kush (Pakistan)
4. SW. Himalayan Mts. (India, Nepal)
Mountain barriers isolate China from Western
culture and led to uniform internal culture.
B. Deserts
1. Gobi. N Central. Dry hot/cold.
2. Takla Makan. West.""
C. Rivers (Note Wade Giles vs Pinyin nomenclature)
1. Huang (Yellow). Yellow with loess dust
from NW China, Mongolia. Provides fertility.
Low in dry season, floods spectacularly in
rainy season. (China's Sorrow)
2. Chang(Yangtze). Deep, navigable. Provides rice bowl
for central China.
3. Xi (West). Fertile soil, long, warm
growing season. One of most densely populated
areas in the world.
TWO MAJOR AREAS OF CHINA and outlying areas
1. NORTH CHINA. N. of Qinling Mts
a. Heavily populated early in Chinese history. Often invaded on a cyclical basis.
b. Fairly flat, dry, depends on Yellow River.
c. Loess, brought by river and wind, make it
China's richest agricultural area. Lack of
rain (25") makes growing dependent on irrigation. Flood and drought two major problems.
d. Crops. Dry grains, legumes, corn, forest products.
e. Southern portion centered around Yangtze R.
f. Upper (W) part of river rolling, eroded. Lower (E) rich flood plain.
g. This area not invaded until late in China's history. 1/10 of human race located here.
h. Cotton, jute, mulberry trees, tea.
2. SOUTH CHINA
a. Flood plain of the West River forms major "rice bowl".
b. Bordering SE Asia, area is tropical, mountainous, often jungle. (tigers, elephant)
c. Rice, sugar, indigo, fruits.
3. WESTERN AREA
Primarily desert and high steppe. Few crops, mostly nomadic peoples.
4. MANCHURIA
Dry, cold, good wheat land. Heavy concentration of raw materials, particularly iron ore and
coal.
WEATHER OF CHINA
1. China's climate tremendously varied. N edge that of Alaska, S edge, Hawaii.
2. Mountains cut off rain in some areas, cause on shore wind.
3. Rainfall. P. 12 in book. Monsoon rain during summer. Cold, dry continental air in winter.
4. Area S. of Yangtze gets steady rain pattern. North China is critically dependent on monsoon
rains in the summer. Heavy rains typically cause major floods.
HISTORY OF CHINA
Central precepts
1. Geography isolated China from the West
2. 2500 years of ethneocentrism, "Central Kingdom
3. Cultural independence. Not reliant on the West for social, intellectual or cultural
development.
4. China has never been defeated by the West. Culturally, socially or politically. China has the
longest continuous history of any nation.
5. Centrality of leader- continued control (after Chou) assumed
that centralized leadership was "right"
I. EARLY HISTORY (LEGENDARY AND SHANG DYNASTIES)
Gobi probably populated in 20,000 BC. Movement of ice dried area out, leading to migrations of
people to the south, and to the northeast, intevitably to North America.
A. Xia DYNASTY (Legendary). Based in Yellow River area. Only legends remain. Deep loess
deposits make finds difficult. All scientific and cultural advances ascribed to heros who lived for
hundreds of years. (Hunting, fishing, farming, writing, etc. )
B. SHANG DYNASTY (1500BC-1027BC)
1. Began in Yellow River valley. Agricultural society dominated by aristocrats. (Economic
model: surplul leads to war, social structure.) The Shang were probably a loose confederation of clan
domains.
2. Animals hunted and domesticated.
3. Building fairly advanced (90'x30' buildings)
4. Shang understood wheel, used chariots in war.
5. Made silk, domesticated mulberry bushes.
6. Records written on "oracle bones" indicate vocabulary of 2500 words.
7. Concept of "Mandate of Heaven" introduced. King served as high priest of anamistic religion
with ancestor worship.
II. PERIOD OF NATIONAL UNIFICATION AND MILITARY EXPANSION (350BC-220AD)
C. Zhou DYNASTY (1027BC-256BC) (Honan, Shensi, Shanshi. E and S of Yellow River
bend... lower river valley.)
1. Longest Chinese dynasty.
2. Shang invaded from NW by less civilized Zhou.
3. 250 yrs of local, feudal warfare.
4. Centralization of feudal power under a nominal king. (Nobles held great power) 20 great
kingdoms vied for power with a nominal king.
5. Centralized in lower Yellow R. valley
6. Characteristics
Beginnings of "Chinese" culture, class system.
Growth of craft and trade guilds
A money economy appeared. ("cash")
Use of iron widespread (Iron plow= forest clearing)
Development of double valve pump
"Mandate of Heaven" confirmed/ written out.
"Court Mannners" became established with the advent of Confucius, the
paragon of bureaucrats.
7. 600-256 BC. Peaceful control erodes into feudal warfare
between powerful nobles .("Age of Warring States")
CONCEPT OF FEUDALISM (REVIEW FROM WESTERN CIV)
MANDATE OF HEAVEN CONCEPT.
1. Used to justify overthrow of government in warring feudal society.
2. Precepts
a. Ruler falls into "evil ways"
b. neglects people and rules of gods.
c. becomes tyrant.
d. Loses "heaven's mandate", justifying overthrow. Loss of mandate shown by natural
disasters such as comets, floods or drought.
e. Revolt, overthrow, new "good" king.
3. Concept formalized by Confucius in his writings. Followed up by Mencius, his disciple.
THE GREAT CHINESE PHILOSOPHERS
All of the great philosophers lived in the waning years of the Zhou Dynasty. (The beginning of the
"Warring States Period", 403-221BC) Poets and artists thrive in the good times, philosophers try to
explain why times are bad. While India had metaphysical religions, China's philosophies were
primarily pragmatic, practical and humanistic.
A. Confucius. Born 551BC, a few years after Buddha. (Mencius his follower)
1. Unlike Buddha, did not seek to escape world. Idea was to be happy in it. Establish balance.
(Sought solution to constant warfare in the later Zhou dynasty.)
2. Man is basically good. Virtue, reverence, good behavior, respect for
past. The family the basis for all humanity.
3. State paternalism. The state the logical extension of the family. Do good and the state will
follow.
a. Proper relationship between leaders and followers. Live properly with honor.
b. If parents (and leaders) adhere to a ritual of good conduct, children (and subjects) will
respect and obey.
c. Conformity to authority (if good) was central.
d. Society and its interrelationships are important. Ritual is paramount.
4. The original concepts of Confucianism reinforced the "son of
heaven" concept, but also provided the basis for justified revolution. (And
so the "Mandate")
5. Writings of Confucius contained in "Nine Classics"./Analects
6. If you win, you're right.. God loves you. If you lose, you are wrong.. God is against you.
Practicality.. never back a loser.
7. Confucianism was later watered down and was used to justify many
tyrannical reigns.
8. Trade was a possible upsetting factor to be controlled rigidly by
the State. This concept continued since the Han dynasty, was reenforced by
the merchant's role in the Confucian concept and probably kept China from
becoming a trading power during the Ming Dynasty, when opportunity and
exploration beckoned.
B. Taoism (Tao.. the "way")
1. Based on legend. 666 BC woman saw shooting star, became pregnant, gave birth to white
haired child, capable of speech.
2. Lao Tsu, or "old sir", deemed author of Taoist teaChings.
3. Taoism a retreat back to nature from the wars of the Zhou dynasty.
4. Man should place himself in rhythm with nature. He did not want formal rule, as did Confucius.
5. To be without desire and knowledge was the ideal. Formal education- looked at as a part of an
evil society- was not desirable. Nature does not recognize society.
6.Man should withdraw from society, but not other men.
7. One might be a Confucian publically, and use Taoism as a personal philosophy.
C.Legalism
1. Reaction to disorder of Zhou dynasty.
2. Man was held to be basically evil. Only classical education could overcome base instincts.
3. Centralized power of the state the overriding "right"
4. Obedience to central authority, production of peasants, efficient military, executive leadership
were the basic precepts of legalism.
D. Qin (Chin) Dynasty (221-207BC)
1. Legalist's ideas became popular in Qin, warlike western border state. 481-221 BC legalist
principles instituted. Faced by challenge by Hsiu-Nu barbarians, Chin had to develop efficient military,
to include attacking infantry and light cavalry. Ferociously efficient government produced military
machine. By 256BC efficient Chi'n military subjugated China.
2. Emperor Qin (Qin Shi Huangdi) created military govt, centralized bureacracy, disband
feudalism, standardize weights, measures and currency, purging books of history and Confucianist
philosophy. (Except the legalists).
Feudalism coldly done away with..as a threat to the emperor.
Wights and measures standardized, a standard monetary system instituted.
3. The "Great Wall" was rebuilt and extended; required taxation, created stress among the
people. Massive labor requirements created food shortage, great unrest among the people.
4. The first concept of "China" , a nation, was born.
5. Brutal system of punishment, period of constant warfare.
6. Large states at war. But large states could finance land reclamation, irrigation, industry.. all
of which caused a rapid increase in population.
7. Emperor died after 14 years, but gave his name to the people he subjugated. His strong son
was removed by treachery, and a weak puppet younger son took the throne. Massive popular
uprisings led by several rebels finally toppled the dynasty. Han leaders moved in to take a devided
nation.
E. Han Dynasty (207BC- 220AD) Military Consolidation of China
1. Attempts to destroy confucianism failed. Believers became martyrs during Chin rule.
Analects memorized, brought back by scholars.
2. In early Han Dynasty, established by an ex-farmer guerilla, Liu Pang, Confucianism declared
"state" religion. Legalist restrictions done away with. Although some land given to loyal backers,
feudalism was for all practical purposes, dead. Ch'in lead taken in reenforcing bureacracy built on a
scholarly Confucian civil service.(Face, Group responsibility)
3. Han the apex of nationalism, expansion for China. The Chinese people
still refer to themselves as "Sons of Han".
Population expanded to 57 million. Capital of Chang-an, 250,000.
4. 3d Emperor, Wu Ti (140-87BC) expanded China to include Korea, Manchuria, IndoChina
and Turkestan) P.6l, China. Also experimented with state socialism to break up profiteering,
established state owned system of transportation, and founded state price supports for food.
Income tax (5%) initiated along with public works to reduce unemployment. For a time, the system
worked.
a. Trade flourished with the arts.
b. State exams (3 levels) given to administrators. Bureaucracy grows.
--However, national disaster, flood and drought.. and people's short memory (wanting the good old
ways) ended the experiment. Cost of overexpansion, and weak leadership led to the downfall of the
dynasty.
5. Trade.
a. Expanded to reach W. Asia and Mideast. (conflict with Persians, who controlled Mideast.)
b. Contact with Japan in 1st Cent AD.
6.Scientific Advances
Sun dials, water clock (accurate concept of time), seismograph, lunar calendar.
7. Typically, succesion of weak emperors led to downfall of the dynasty. Influx of Tatars
conquered the north, led to a period of fragmentation. Civil war and famine were commonplace.
F. Medieval Period (221-618 AD)
1. Period of turbulence and warfare (Medieval Period, 221-618 AD) followed downfall of Han
Empire.
2. Unification achieved in 581 under the Sui Dynasty. Set the stage for the "Golden Age" of
China. Typically, the Sui collapsed under overtaxation caused by overexpansion, the rebuilding of the
Great Wall and operations designed to take Korea.
III. ChinA'S GOLDEN AGE, THE T'ANG AND SUNG DYNASTIES (618-1279AD)
G. T'ang Dynasty. (618-907 AD) Age of the Poets.
1. New blood from Tatars, influx of Buddhism and one of China's greatest emperors, Tai Tsung
gave rise to the dynasty.
2. Tai Tsung (627-50), similar to Akbar: warrior, learned, accepting of
different religions and views. (Ref p702 OOH) Emperor was simple Confucian,
but tolerated all.
3. Empire expanded to include parts of India, central Asia and Afghanistan.
a. Tai Tsungs reign allowed the Golden age by establishing peace, and a
surplus of food, exports.
b. Wealth, trade, and an explosion of the arts resulted. (Imperial library, 54,000 volumes)
4. Though periodically broken by Tatar invasions, T'ang retained control, but (typically) became
enfeebled with weak leaders. The Chinese became more and more inward looking, with a fear of
foreigners..... a tendency which grows with each dynasty, inevitable crippling the Empire.
5. Tatar rebellion, floods resulted in death of 36 million. Mandate of heaven involked, and
T'ang was overthrown. (960)
H. Sung Dynasty. (960-1279)
1. Maintained status quo, did not regain territory. Bureaucracy developed conformist
intellectual and political attitudes which made change almost impossible.
2. Tai Tsu, 1st emperor, and Wang An-Shih (1021-86) chief advisor, launched another
experiment in state socialism. Unemployed and old age insurance, nationalized commerce,
agricultural loans. Tax burden was too great, rich opposed plan. As a result, it flopped.
3. Arts and Sciences (OOH 731-753)
a. Paper, ink and printing using blocks.
b. Number of documents increased, to include the first known "book" (rather than scroll).
40,000 characters in Chinese slowed use of block printing)
c. Paper currency, a credit system, and inflation, began c.a. 1,000 AD. (650 years before
Europe)
d. Gunpowder, water clock refinements.
e. Sung navy huge, ships could carry 300. Traded with SE Asia, India and the Persian Gulf.
4. Nature of Art. (particularly in porcelain. Kaolin clay critical) Chinese wanted
beauty in everyday things. Textiles, metalworking highly developed. Jade
and gem carving never surpassed. Painting was a form of calligraphy. Few
brush strokes used to create feeling, not realism. Ceramic art reached
unsurpassed heights.
5. Bureaucracy was firmly entrenched with formalized exams to allow entry into the
bureaucratic guild.
6. 1279. Sung Dynasty fell to Mongols in sea battle near Hong Kong. (Story has it that Sung
Emperor wrote letter demanding Gengis Khan's submission. GK spat in the direction of China,
marched his army 1200 miles across Gobi Desert to invade China.)
IV. THE MONGOL EMPIRE (1279-1368)
The last and the most violent of the "waves" of nomadic barbarians which had swept across
central asia to the door of Europe a number of times. Mongol/Tatar pressure had precipitated the fall
of Rome by pressuring the Germanic and Frankish tribes to the south. The Mongol Empire,
established for just a century, stretched from eastern Germany to Korea, from the Arctic Ocean to the
Persian Gulf and Turkey, and attempted seaborne invasions of Japan and Java. To the great
advantage of western civilization, it opened, for a brief time, the routes between east and west, which
had been closed by barbaric tribes for hundreds of years.
The Land
High flatland. Hot in summer, bitter in winter. Gobi Desert to south. To the north, mountains and
forests.
The people
Nomads who tended sheep, goats and horses. Lived in yurts, yak felt tents. Ate meat, cheese and
sour milk curds. Fermented mare's milk (kumiss) favorite alcoholic drink. Nomads looked down on
those bound to land as slaves. (Similar to American Apache and Sioux). Mongols lived in extended
family groups, except when they gathered to hunt. No political unions, only loose confederations of
different tribes.
Mongol confederation lived in NE around headwaters of Onon R. and Kerulen R. Taters ruled N.
China during Sung Dynasty. (Yellow R., S. of Great Wall, p 236, Living World History)
A. Gengis Khan, b. 1167 (Temujin, son of local chief. Disposessed. Survived, came back to
gain control)
1. 1196-1206. Fought way to become chief of the Mongols.
2. 1206. Defeated Tatars in East, absorbed all Mongol and allied tribes. Organized Mongol
army. Light cavalry, Mongol bow, ponies. Fire, maneuver, retreat, ambush.
B. Campaigns
1. China: N China devided into two small states, Si-Sia in West taken in 1209. Kin Empire in
East (capital was Peking) taken 1211-1215. (Siege arts had to be learned). Sung Empire was not
conquered until 1279, by Kublai Khan, Gengis' grandson.
2. The West 1219-1225
a. Mongols absorbed peaceful and educated Uyghurs (S of Tien Shan) who educated
the larger tribe and developed writing.
b. Turks defeated in major battle near Aral Sea (Turkish sultan had killed emissaries. As
a result, he was personally pursued and killed by one of Gengis' relatives) Army of 100-150,000
cavalry used.
c. Mongols drove thru Iran, across Caucusus Mts to Kiev. Finally withdrew to Mongolia in
1225, laden with loot. Gengis Khan died in battle in 1227, age 60.
3. Gengis' 4 sons (Chagatai, Ogetai, Tuli, Juchi) received lands, clans and taxes.Sons and
grandsons continued conquests.
a. 1236-42. Grandson Batu invaded Ukraine, Russia, Poland and Hungary. Settled in
Ukraine. His army became known as the "Golden Horde" and ruled the Russian states for 200 years.
Last Tatar state, Crimea, annexed by Russia in 1783. Remaining (squabbling) Mongols unite under
Mongke (1251) Hulaga Khan assigned command. 150K attacked Islamic Mideast. Northern Persia
(Assassins "Hasish'im" for supposed use of Hasish) defeated. Baghdad sacked, advanced culture
destroyed.(Caliph probably wrapped in carpet and kicked to death) Damascus surrenders(1258).
Mongke dies/struggle for succession/bulk of mongol army withdraws to pasture in Persia. Mongol
garrisons defeated in Syria by Mamelukes (with some help from Crusader lords) in 1260 at battle of
Ayn Jalute (Goliath's Spring), but ruled Iran and Iraq for 100 years. Local Khans became Persian in
all but name. Iran still shows heavy oriental ethnic influence. (Mamelukes drove out Christian
crusader lords by 1290. Hulaga Khan settled in N Persia, helped to restore Il Khanates water works
and flocks....
C.The Mongol Empire in China (1279-1368)
In China, Kin empire conquered in 1235. Sung Empire fell in naval
battle near Hong Kong in 1279. Japan saved from Kublai Khan's invasion by a
great storm, called Kamikaze by the Japanese.
1. China ruled for first time by non Chinese. To Mongols, true
nomads, land meant little. Herds of cattle and horses were wealth.
2. Mongols had to change point of view when they became world conquerors. Chinese
advisors convinced them to collect taxes rather than to destroy.
3. Foreign contacts welcomed under Kublai Khan. Arabs, Venetians and Russians served in
the government.(Umberto and Marco Polo)
4. Active trade between China and the Byzantine Empire. Gunpowder, porcelain and paintings
exported.
5. Confucianism fostered by Khan.
6. Following Kublai Khan's death, divisions caused downfall of Empire. Buddhist monk led
rebels against Mongols. Took Peking in 1368 and established the Ming Dynasty.
D. Achievements of the worldwide Mongol Empire
1. Helped to unite Russia. The old Trading States had to pull together under the largest,
Moscow, to be able to resist the Mongols.
2. Influenced areas ethnically. In Turkestan, changes most longlived. Tamurlane (c1350)
conquered the entire area. Nomads stayed on till 19th century.
3. For almost 150 years, the Mongols created a bridge between the east, particularly China,
and the West. Because they controlled all territory in between, and because such leaders as Kublai
Khan welcomed foreigners (such as Marco Polo), ideas from China such as paper and printing,
gunpowder, paper money, the use of coal, time, and other concepts were transmitted to the West.
The West didn't really have much to contribute to the East at this time.
E. Reason for fall of Mongol Empire.
1. Loss of ethnic unity. Capitol established at Karakorum. Later,
however, Mongol princes began to be more autonomous, adopt local customs
and religions. (Golden Horde- Moslems, Yuens of Great Khan in China-
Buddhists/Confucianists) Splits and friction developed between the mongol
leaders, leading to eventual defeat.
2. Few numbers- one million mongols ruled 200 million subjects.
3. Area of empire too large to control.
4. Actual rule impossible.. collection of taxes was as much
rule as most subjects saw.
5. Advent of technology, particularly firearms, favored
settled civilizations. Nomads rarely are initiators of invention.
V. THE MING DYNASTY
J. Ming Dynasty ("Brilliant") 1368-1644
1. China greatly reduced in size. Great Wall again the northern boundary.During 1300's,
"Emperor's Eunuch" (Cheng Fenh ?), a muslim, explored SE Asia, India, reached Mecca and the E.
Coast of Africa. Impressed muslims. Impetus for sea exploration was reversed by movement of
capital from Nanjing in the south (emph on sea power) to Beijing in the north (protection against
Mongols) Sea power and exploration withered. Northern focus allowed China to control expansion of
landbased Russia in the 1700's-but left China totally unprepared to meet a seaborne invasion of
Europeans in the 16th and 17th century.
2. European expeditions arrived in China in the 1500s. Portuguese (Macao, Amoy). Dutch
(Taiwan, 1620s). English (Canton, 1637)
3. European behavior such as plundering and murder, led Chinese to regard westerners as
incouth "foreign devils" and to limit contact. Therefore, Chinese isolation again began to grow.
4. Ming Dynasty highpoint of porcelain and sculpture in China.
5. Much of the empire's energy went into arts. Decadence grew. As a result, the Tatar state of
Manchuria overthrew the Dynasty in 1644. Manchus were invited in to put down an uprising- and
decided to stay.
VI. THE MANCHU DYNASTY
K.Manchu Dynasty, 1644-1912
1. Manchus ruled through Chinese bureaucracy, but maintained high posts for themselves.
Manchus retained their own customs and were regarded as foreigners by the Chinese. Because the
Manchus (Qing) were outsiders, their primary objective was simply to retain power. Therefore, they
were defensive, and unable (or unwilling) to initiate change. To add to the problem, the government
that they "inherited" was ultraconservative, ethnocentric, and made up of the Confucian scholar class
that had everything to lose if radical change occurred in the chinese culture.Confucianism was
adamant about state control of trade, therefore this combination was uniquely unable to adapt to the
challenges posed by 19th century incursions of western traders, military and ideas.
2. Under Manchu rule, China expanded to include Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, IndoChina,
Tibet and eastern Turkestan.
3. During the initial years, Manchus ruled as well as most chinese dynasties. Population grew
rapidly. (2x 1680-1900) Although Manchus dealt with West, contact was greatly restricted.
FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN China
A. In the late 1600s to 1700s, an explosion of Western exploration interested europeans (and the
Americans) in the China trade.
B. "Weak Man of Asia" perspective.
1. The West's, particularly England's demand for Chinese goods - and the Chinese demand for
silver bullion in return, placed an extremely heavy demand on the English economy. Some
commodity was needed to offset the silver outflow from the royal treasury. (Mercantilism
demanded trade, not exchange of hard currency)
2. England engaged in illegal import of Burmese opium into China. Opium was easily
smuggled and could be immediately turned into hard currency. Provided an immediate cash outflow
which could be taken in cash or high value trade such as silk. Manchu attempts to halt the trade
failed. Confrontation caused the "Opium War". China lost, resulting in the seizure
of Hong Kong (1840) and the Treaty of Nanking (1842) which gave England
most favored nation trade status
. 3. Other nations stepped up pressure for similar trade concessions. Because of centuries of
isolation, and a foreign policy which was traditionally land oriented toward the western frontier, China
was neither culturally or technologically prepared to resist the seaborne westerners. The Manchu
government, uneasy because of popular unrest, found it expedient to compromise with the "foreign
devils" and so retain power.
4. Foreigners demanded and got extraterritoriality which removed China's
ablility to enforce its own laws.
5. During a limited war with England (1856-60) China was further weakened.
C. Factors creating instability/conflict.
a. Population: 1700= 100 mil, 1850= 400 mil. Old dynastic form of government was not
capable or flexible enough to seek new solutions.
b. Cultural dislocation: Foreign power over a prostrate China. Culturally, the people were
not able to deal with this reality.
c. Economic dislocation: Rapid expansion of foreign imports, cheap goods, displaced
Chinese workers and jobs. (textiles, transportation, tools, etc). Lack of jobs led to starvation, unrest.
d. Foreign invasion of Chinese territory. (Turkestan and Manchuria by Russia, Korea and
Sakhalin by Japan.)
e. Imperial government blamed foreigners for all its troubles, still believed in dynastic
approach, unable and unwilling to change.
D. Peasant unrest caused invocation of "Mandate of Heaven" against the Manchus. Peasants
outraged at power of "foreign devils" and the inability of the government to effectively combat them.
Results were:
1.The Tai Ping Rebellion (mid 1850s). Peasant "christian" Hong,
claiming to be Jesus' brother precipitated massive revolt in southern and
central Chinal. Rejection of Confucian scholars, and heritical christian
claims alienated both chinese and foreign possibility of support for the
revolt. "Christian" revolt alienated massive numbers of chinese. Caused
nearly 20 million deaths with associated famine. Central China ravaged.
Manchu government critically weakened, hate of Chinese for Manchus grew.
2. Expanding Japan, seeking Korea and Taiwan, precipitated the Sino-Japanese war of
1895, which resulted in cedeing of those territories.
China humiliated and pressure from people increases against Manchus.
3. Victimization of China by foreign business and developers, stripping of China of territory by
western nations directly caused reaction of "Boxer Rebellion" of 1899. All foreigners
attacked, 250 killed. Diplomats cornered in Peking for "100 days".
International relief force finally freed them. "Boxer Protocol' resulted.
Huge fine levied on the government dealt death blow to the Manchus, led to
final downfall of the government.
E. Russo Japanese War (1904).
1. Battle between old power, Russian empire, and newly developed power, Japan, was fought
on Chinese soil for control of Manchuria (and its resources of coal and iron ore), a Chinese state.
2. Russia had occupied Manchuria during the Boxer Rebellion.
3. Naval battle sunk Russian fleet. Japanese took Port Arthur, established a foothold on the
continent.
F. Late reforms by Chinese in education and government came too little, too late and were
ineffectual. Dowager Empress died in 1908. 3 yr old grandnephew, Henry Pu Yi, abdicated in 1911.
(Later became Japanese puppet in "Manchuko"- Manchuria after the Japanese conquest). The last
Chinese dynasty ended, and China was thrown into turmoil in a world with which it was not equipped
to deal.
VIII. THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 1911-1949
A. Background
1. At the beginning of the century, China disorganized, govt corrupt. Independent generals, the
Warlords staked out huge, informally recognized holdings. Some rather
progressive, others outright brutal. All lived off of the people.
3. Small, western educated middle class sought alternative solutions. Most of their ideas were
rather fuzzy liberalism, singularly unsuited to a chinese population where autocratic, centralized govt
was traditional.
B. Sun Yat-Sen (1866-1925)
1. Born to modest merchant family in S. China
2. Educated British school in Hawaii,(then still independent) became christian, a doctor.
(Queen Liliolukilani)
3. Active, liberal revolutionary against Manchu repression, had to flee China, and became fund
raiser for "Overseas Chinese" community.
4. Sun's "Three Principles" (rather fuzzy liberal concepts, stated in
Confucian terms) summarized his position and became the political
objectives of the Kuomintang, the secret revolutionary society which became
China's only functioning political party after the fall of the Manchu
Dynasty.
a. China should become strong militarily and economically. Foreign opportunism should be
stopped.
b. China should be a democracy
d. Peasants should be given their own land, taxes should be equitably distributed, and the
standard of living should be raised.
5. 1911. Widespread rebellion finally toppled the Manchus. The Imperial Prime Minister (and
most powerful warlord), Yuan Shi-Kai came to agreement with rebels, Sun was
elected- 5% vote with strict wealth and literacy provisions- president of
the new republic. (This was probably a covert power play by Yuan. He would
not have been accepted if he declared himself president, but he knew Sun
did not have the military strength to unite or hold the warring parts of
China together)
6. Unable to restrain warlords, Sun resigned in favor of Yuan in 1912. Yuan, after power, and
frustrated with clumsy "democratic" concepts attempted to establish his own dynasty, but died in
1916.
7. China pressed into fighting for the Allies in WWI. Hoped to regain some of its territories as a
reward, particularly German concessions in Shantung province.
8. During the War, Japan attempted to take advantage of China by pressing its "21 Demands"
which would effectively let it take over Manchuria. However, China
resisted.
9. At end of WWI, Japan given German concessions, China outraged.
10. After WWI, USSR aids the Kuomintang, and the party, although democratic, is patterned
after CCCP. Sun determined to work with with the CCP to move China forward. Sun
managed to control S. China. N. China still in the control of the Warlords.
11. Sun dies in 1925. KMT leadership goes to Chiang Kai Shek
C. Formation of the Nationalist Party. Chiang Kai-Shek (1886-1975)
1. Son of a farmer, raised as a soldier. Attended Chinese military academy, and later the
Japanese Imperial Staff College.
2. Member of the KMT. Returned to China just before 1911 revolution. Appointed commandant
of Wampoah Military Academy. Took over KMT on Sun's death in 1925. Favored strong military, then
military rule. Organized KMT army with military academy graduates.
3. Determined to destroy warlords and Communists.
4. Conducted effective northern campaign against warlords in 1926.
5. Led coup against CCP in 1927. Attempted to capture leaders, particularly Mao, but failed.
"White Terror" utilized chinese underworld army to murder rivals. Civil war resulted.
6. Founded Nationalist Chinese Party in 1928. Party recognized as legal government of China
by US. Internal struggle, Nationalist vs CCP.
7. Chiang used Warlords who would back him from 1928-1949.Chaing became frustrated in
his attempts to apply democracy. First and foremost military, he became much like his predecessors
because he was unable to effect social or governmental change. This led to corruption on a huge
scale, and widespread public discontent.
D. The Communist Party in China. Mao Zedong. (1883-1976)
1. Born 1883 of successful peasant farmer. Father treated workers badly, but Mao identified
with the underdog. Mao disliked Confucianism.
2. Served in Nationalist Army, 1911-12.
3. Mao impressed with Russian Revolution. Felt that the same objectives could be achieved in
China. Became a communist.
4. 1919. USSR extends help, study of Marxist theory at Peking U.
5. 1921. CCP formed. Mao central figure.
6. 1922. CCP joins Comintern with the USSR
7. 1924-27. Active coopteration with KMT.
8. 1925. Mao recognized revolutionary potential of the Chinese peasant. Marxian
teaching of communism emphasized the industrial society/revolution and
industrial workers- a very small group in China.
9. 1927- Chiang's coup against the CCP.
10. 1928. Mao joined Chu Teh (warlord) to form the Red Army. (This became the core of the
communist resistance until the success of the revolution.)
11. 1928. Nationalist Party formed. Civil war erupts.
12. 1931. Japan invades Manchuria. Chinese resistence is fragmented by internal squabbles
and battles.
13. 1932. Japan establishes "Manchukuo" as an empire.
14. 1933. Japan invades Hopei province. (Peking)
15. 1934. The Long March takes place. Red Army surrounded by Nationalist Army. Manages
to escape by marChing 5000 miles to N. China.
100,000 begin the March, 20,000 survive to form the hard core CCP. During the March, the
communists effectively organized the peasants by treating them fairly, impressing them as reformers.
Nationalists do not enact reforms and the Nationalist army continues the abuse of the population.
16. 1936. Chiang is kidnapped by own generals and forced into reaching a "peace agreement"
with the CCP to allow effective resistance to the advancing Japanese. "United Front" results.
17. 1937-45. Relatively efficient war against the Japanese. CCP perfects guerilla warfare
tactics. Nationalist army, made up of warlord forces, remains corrupt.
18. 1941. US makes "Free China" (KMT) an ally, based primarily on ignorance of the political
situation in China. US believed KMT would step into the "power vacuum" caused by the end of the
war. US did not understand or appreciate the growing power of the CCP.
19. 1945. At the end of the war, 53,000 US Marines move into Peiking and Tientsin to prevent
a possible USSR takeover. USSR had declared war on Japan in the closing days, and used the
excuse to invade and occupy Sakhalin Island and (temporarily) North Korea.
18. 1949. Final battles. Defection and corruption of Nationalist forces makes defeat inevitable.
Chiang withdraws forces to Taiwan.
19. Communist hierarchy absolutely dedicated to Mao. Red Army used as tool to help nation
recover. Aids in agricultural and industrial work and was closely linked to the peasants as a "peoples'
army". (Also a major political element in the CCP)
E. Reorganization of China. Industrial and Agricultural Reform.
1. Landlords "disposed of" during peasant takeover (47-49)
2. 1949. Much land in ownership of peasants. Inefficient.
Industry in a shambles after the war.
3. 1953-55. Mutual aid teams initiated. First Five Year Plan with major emphasis on industrial
growth in steel and chemicals. Decision was made to put little of China's limited capital into
agriculture.
4. 1955. Cooperatives forced by the state. (Coop tools and labor). Individual farmer still
retained land ownership and individual payment.
(Brief explanation of Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, concept of "Invisible
Hand"/supply and demand market forces, versus concept of state control of
resources and output)
5. 1958-60. "The Great Leap Forward". Mao driven initiative to increase
agricultural output through human "will power", in order to generate
vitally needed capital for industry. Mao fervently believed that the
peasant, if he tried hard enough, could radically increase output. ("Long
March" dedication). Communes of up to 50,000 formed. Individual ownership
done away with, tremendous pressure for production. Family groups broken
down, state run nurseries for worker's children. No private pay. Rations
issued to indviduals, not to the father for distribution. Unrealistic goals
set for both agriculture and industry. Bad weather, unrealistic goals and
worker resistance combined to make the "Great Leap Forward" and unmitigated
disaster
6. Mid 1959. GLF recognized as a failure. Political opposition surfaces, forcing Mao to seek
some means to reassert leadership. Agriculture given more funds. Moderate increase in agricultural
meChinization. Smaller work units. The peasants, as a reward given 5-7% of available land
for private plots.(Chinese concept- if it doesn't work, change
it)Ironically, as it later turns out, the architects of the "pragmatic"
changes were led by Deng Xiaopeng, first secretary of the party. He was
later to be purged as an opportunist for suggesting this "capitalist road"
path.
1962- beginning of Sino Soviet Split, primarily based on
Khruschev's concept of peaceful world communist domination versus Mao's
theory of the need for a worldwide violent revolution
7. 1966-71. Major disruption in agriculture and industry caused
by Cultural Revolution.
8. 1971. Radicals demand return to "pure" communism. No private
land. Jian Quing and three other powerful ministers leaders of "ultra Red"
faction.
9. 1971-73. Drought and floods. Retreat from Cultural Revolution
begun by Mao.
10 1976. Mao and Zhou En-Lai die.
11. 1976. Hua GuoFeng regime emphasized economic and agricultural
growth without interference of ideological issues.
12. 1980. Zhao Ziyang regime. Agricultural output up 25% 1980-83.
Move toward a more competetive approach in industry.
F. The Cultural Revolution 1967-73
1. Mao instigated "re Revolution" (at age 84) to remove counterrevolutionaries, solidify his
power, and to rekindle the revolutionary spirit. Outright political opposition had begun to appear, and
Mao took steps to suppress it. (Jian Quing probably central in his decision)
2. "Red Guards", college age youth, recruited to identify anti
revolutionaries and to act as "cheerleaders" for the re revolution. Guards
given the "little red book" of Chairman Mao's political thought, and set
loose on the populace.
3. 1966. Mao purges the "counterrevs" in Peking.
4. 1967. Radical guards in violent conflict with moderates.
5. 1967-68. Mao's "Thought Study" initiated. All Chinese to measure their actions against the
"Red Book".
6. 1966-70. Universities in China closed because of conflict.
7. 1969. 20 million youths sent to rural areas.
8. 1971. Leftists demand return to "pure" communism. Do away with all
personally owned land. This brings them directly in conflict with the
moderates, who had learned from the disaster of the Cultural Revolution.
9. 1971-73. Droughts and floods cripple economy.
10. 1971. Lin Piao, Defense Minister and possible competetion for Mao,
mysteriously dies with advisors in a "plane crash"
11. 1973. Mao begins withdrawal from Revolution. Forces for "Pragmatism"
begin to secretly grow.
12. 1976. Mao Dies and radical "Gang of Four" attempts to seize power.
Mao's wife (Jian Qing) and three primary followers jailed and tried
for treason.
13. Hua Gofeng and "moderates" take power.
14. 1985 Deng Xiaopeng consolidates control. Starts libralization of
economy
but no political libralization.
1986... Party leader Hu Yaobang encourages criticism of policy
decisions.
1989... Hu Yaobang dies, student protests begin. Power struggle. "hard
liners" led by Li Peng force Army to be called in. Moderate Zhao
Ziyang forced out. Yang Shankun new head of military.
1989... Student protests crushed in Tienamen Square.
G. Chinese Foreign Policy.
1. 1949. Close alliance with USSR. Loans, treaty against Japan, (and the US)
2. 1950. Korean War. China adds "volunteers" to N Korean forces. Push UN forces south of
38th parallel.
3. 1951. China condemned as aggressor by UN
4. Reasons for Chinese involvement in Korea.
a. Protect territory, partly Manchuria.
b. Protect the communist N Korean regime.
c. Establish leadership position in Asia
5. 1953. Korean truce signed (US pact with S Korea)
6. China used Korean war to get more aid from USSR
7. Bandung, Indonesia.(1955) China (Mao), and India (Nehru) lead Third World meeting.
"Bandung Accord" establishes China as a leader independent of the USSR.
8. 1956. Mao concerned with Russian suppression of Hungarian Revolution, DeStalinization
movement.
9.1959. Tibetan Revolt put down by Chinese. China signs pact with Afghanistan, Pakistan and
Nepal. India would not sign and, beginning its lean toward the USSR, accepts military aid from
Russia. (Beginning of Sino Soviet split)
10. Sino Soviet split
a. Chinese development of nuclear weapons
b. China's befriending of Albania, rebel communist state.
c. China criticizes Khruschev in backdown during the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) to the
"American running dogs".
11. 1962. China invades N India, ceasefire 1 month later.
12. 1963. USSR/China border dispute (Sinkiang province)
13. US recognition (informal) of Communist China (1973)
14. 1978. US normalizes relations with China.
15. 1979. China invades Viet Nam (VN, backed by USSR, was invading Cambodia, backed by
China). After "teaChing the Viets a lesson", China withdrew.
SUMMARY NOTES, ChinA, 1949-1979.
1949- CCP takeover: peasants given land Consolidation of power.
from rich landowners. "Liquidation" of dissenters
53-55 "Mutual aid" teams formed to help Mandatory communist education
farmers. for all Chinese
1955 Farm "cooperatives" made mandatory
1958-60 " THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD"
1958- Communes made mandatory. No indiv Massive "reeducation" for GLF
ownership of land. Up to 50 thou and release of individual land
people in communes. Large projects. ownership.
Industry emphasized over agriculture.
Family groups broken. Emphasis on goup.
Great pressure for ag. production.
Unrealistic industrial goals.
1960- "GLF" flops. Production falls. Gov't By 1966, Mao perceives an
gives more funds to farmers- smaller "antirevolutionary" movement.
work units. 7% of land allowed for private ownership as incentives.
1967-74 THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION
1967 "Re" revolution. Red Guards formed. Purge of Gov't. Violent riots
between Red Guards and moderates. "Thought Study" and
mandatory use of the "Red Book" Universities closed 66-
70;students to the farms.
68-71 Red Guards interfere withfarm production. Farmers resist
violently.
71-73 Floods, drought cripple farm 71- Lin Piao killed
production.
1972 President Nixon opens dialog with China. Moves to recognize
China.
1976 Mao Zedong dies "The Gang of Four" attempts to
sieze power. Mao's wife, Jian Quing, is the leader.The attempt
is unsuccessful.The "4" are imprisoned.
1978... "Pragmatists" gain power in China. Tinkering with pure
Communism becomes common.Deng XiaoPeng assumes control
1978 US grants full diplomatic recognition to China.
1985.... Deng Xiaopeng consolidates control. Starts liberalization of
economy but no political liberalization.
1986... Party leader Hu Yaobang encourages criticism of policy
decisions.Initial crackdown on democratic movement.
1989... Hu Yaobang dies, student protests begin. Power struggle. "hard
liners" led by Li Peng force Army to be called in. Moderate Zhao
Ziyang forced out. Yang Shankun new head of military.
1989... Student protests crushed in Tienamen Square.International anger.
1995-96 Confrontations with Nationalist China. Deng Xiapeng aging/ill.
FOREIGN POLICY IN CHINA
1949- Alliance with USSR. Mutual aid assured
1950- Korean war begins. Chinese "volunteers" aid the North Koreans.
1951- China condemned by the United Nations.
1953- Truce signed in Korea.
1955- Bandung Conference in Indonesia. China (Mao) and India (Nehru) assume
role of leadership of "Third World"
1959- Tibet revolt results in border war with India.
1960-62 Sino-Soviet (China-USSR) split develops over differences in
politics and Chinese development of nuclear weapons.
1962- Second confrontation on the border with India
1963- Incidents with USSR along the northern disputed border
1969- Border warfare with USSR in Manchuria
1971- Lin Piao, Defense minister killed in "plane crash"
1972- Communist China visited by President Nixon
1976- Mao Zedong dies. "Gang of Four" and Jian Quing jailed.
1978- Full recognition by US
1979- China, backing Cambodia and reacting to Viet Nam's invasion of
Cambodia, invades northern Viet Nam to "teach the Viets a lesson".
Chinese forces withdraw after several months.
1987- China moves to suppress Tibetan demonstrations against Chinese
occupation
Summary notes: China in Transition Conference/ Richmond Collegiate/ Oct 94
Dr. Israel: American Perceptions of China
“Massive Yellow Peril” stimulated by business concerns in late 1800s (cheap labor)
Stereotypes perpetuated by Hollywood. (Business- vast market opportunity in early 1800s
to “Yellow peril” with immigration”. “Fu Manchu”...sinister, mad oriental genius. (post WWI).
“Dragon Lady” concept (WWII), exotic, powerful women. Bruce Lee...heroic Kung Fu fighter
(late 70’s)
Most stereotypes are conflicting and only partially true . Negative stereotypes intensify with
perceived threat. (Job threat, late 1800’s, Boxer Rebellion. “Red Hordes” with CCP takeover
in 1949. Heroic aspects are emphasized when the Chinese faced common enemies with the
US. (WWII)
Periods of Stereotypes of China
Late 1700’s- Period of Enchantment. The mysterious (rich) orient.British Squires Group of
investors given the name “Tycoon”, meaning great and honorable.
1840-1905- Age of Contempt. (US growing in confidence. Science, Tech, and evangelistic
Christianity all made China look backward, cruel, pagan and ignorant. ) China in
disorder. Boxer Rebellion. Warlord reign gives way to fragile “democratic ideals” under
Sun Yat Sen
1937- Age of Benevolence. Brave China facing imperial Japan. Chiang and Madame Chiang
the models (?) of western style leadership. Much western propaganda/admiration.
1944/45- Age of great Expectations. The world’s most populace country will become a
democratic, modern (Christian?) and consuming nation, using the US as a model.
1946-49- Disillusionment. KMT and Chiang prove to be dictatorial, corrupt and more
importantly, progressively losing to a no name communist.
1949: Confusion is cleared up. Chiang loses, flees to Taiwan to form “free” Nationalist China.
The “Bad Guy” wins in mainland China. In the early 1950’s Communism (and Mao, et
al) become the devil incarnate in McCarthy’s America.This concept is reinforced by
the Korean War and the continuation of the “Cold War” with the USSR and it’s “allies”.
1954/57-------The Viet Nam War expands. The Chinese are seen by the US as
expanding their empire with the communists in Viet Nam (despite historical enmity
between the two countries.)
1972. Nixon’s “Ping Pong Diplomacy”. Ironically, the US seeks China’s aid in ending the VN
war- despite the fact that the US’s perception of China as a major player in the spread
of Communism was a major factor in the US becoming involved. Brief admiration for
China was dispelled by violence late in the Cultural Revolution toward the Chinese
people.
Early 1980’s: Disillusionment with China because of Cultural Revolution violence and
increasing willingness of Chinese to talk about it. Ironically, their ability to talk about it
was allowed by Deng Xiao Peng’s economic revisions. Politics were still carefully
controlled, but Deng’s reforms decollectivising the countryside were beginning to aid
the peasants. Grow what you want (on the side) and sell it to the cities, who need your
produce. This attitude not only helped the peasants, but began to develop an
immense internal market in China.
Mid 1980’s: Modern economic revisions (raising western expectations and hopes for
democracy - and business opportunities within China). The reality was, the expansion
was in economics only. The government was holding close rein.
1987: Initial crackdown on democratic movement. Largely ignored by West because of
inflated expectations of democracy and markets in China
1989: Tienaman Square. Initial ultimate complement to US (and Western) ego. Chinese
demonstrating on international TV for “Democracy” (?). Massive government
crackdown (also on TV) led to massive disillusionment in West.
1990’s: Confusion: What’s going on here? Potential massive business opportunities “tainted”
by human rights violations, government bureaucracy and corruption. Yet other
countries seem to be jumping on the opportunities. What to do?
Dr. Larry Weiss/ Strategies for teaching Chinese Economics.
Paradigm. Use US in the 1870-1900 as a comparative model.
The internal Chinese market is exploding, much as in the US. Most stereotypes
emphasize China as an exporting threat. Not so. Most production will go to
the rising expectations of the Chinese themselves. Den Xiaopeng released the
internal market when he decollectivised the farmers in the late 70’s. This
created the ability for farmers to (marginally) produce what they wanted and to
sell to the huge city market who needed produce. This produced farmers who
wanted to buy radios, motorcycles and the good things of life.
All of the expansionistic opportunities and all of the problems are there
Weak government, strong industrialists
Corruption and bribes rampant
Little social legislation, much abuse of the worker
Huge environmental impact
China has a huge disciplined, literate and malleable work force. Great for local growth
and for foreign expansion.
Why didn’t China start earlier on industrial expansion?
Capitalism had its chance in the late 1300’s when the emperor’s eunuch (Ming
Dynasty) voyaged as far as India, Mecca (he was a Muslim) and the east coast of Africa.
However, the Ming became worried about Mongol depredations and moved the capital from
Nanjing (in the South with a maritime orientation) to Beijing in the north (with a landward
orientation toward protecting China from the barbarians) This enabled China to protect itself
from the expansion of Russia in the 1700s, but left it completely unprepared to defend itself
from the Europeans who were maritime and thought in those terms. Also, the central
government was Confucian, which emphasized that merchants and trade were a threat to
internal stability and should be closely controlled by the state. The Manchus, although
outsiders from the north, were ultraconservative confucianists and emphasized state control
of trade.This did not allow for entrepreneurial expansion and the Chinese in the 1700-1800
time frame were unable to understand the Europeans mercantile objectives.
The Overseas Chinese who migrated starting in the 1300s to SE Asia and other
locations were not bound by a Confucian central government and so were able to pursue
trade and mercantile activities which led to the growth of “Little Chinas” (Korea, Taiwan,
Singapore, Malaya, Indian cities and South African chinese enclaves....later “Chinatowns” in
London and the US) which actively pursued trade and profit.
The Industrial Revolution (Great Leap Forward) under Mao (with its many disasters)
was heavy industrialization along Stalinist lines. It ignored the potential for market in the
peasants. Also, the GLF deemphasized the family- indeed almost sought to do away with it.
Den Xiaopeng’s decollectivization of agriculture (grow what you want on a limited
basis and sell it to the cities) removed state control of what was produced at farm level. It also
reinstated the family as the basis of agricultural production in China. (what we produce is
what we keep). This released the entrepreneurial forces of a vast population and also
created a market- farmers wanted the better things of life for their families.
Current Chinese Regions of rapid Industrial Growth. So called “Special Zones”
Hong Kong: Though still capitalist, is the model for southern chinese industrial
expansion. It has the European history of trade, high value real estate, banks and rich
farmland.
Fujien Province. (opposite Taiwan). Heart of the central area. Huge amounts of
Taiwanese capital being invested. (Toys R Us plastic toys...almost all made in Fujien)
Shanghai: British mercantile influence. Yangtze trade valley. Communist heavy
industry investment. Incredible growth.
Beijing: Center of bureaucracy. Ultra paperwork. “The sun is high and the Emperor is
far away” (Han) The further you are away from Beijing, the easier it is to make a yen.
NE/ Manchuria. Heavy industry (Japan) . Communist investment in raw materials such
as iron ore and coal.
Tarim Basin (Takla Makan). More oil than two Saudi Arabias(?)
Autonomy of regions and almost total control of their own raw materials makes them
almost impossible to control centrally. The Beijing bureaucracy must bargain to get the raw
materials that it needs from the regions.
Parallels to the 1870-1900 US. “Jim Crow” laws suppress minorities, organized
pressure against labor groups, immensely wealthy industrialists.
China an environmental peril (40 million refrig’s in the next ten years. What will they
use as refrigerants?) Some quiet environmental influence in the country.
Chinese Army investment in new capital growth (1/3?) is seen as a threat, but may
serve to insure investment’s safety in China. However, what does this do to the political
balance of power in the emerging China? The current system can be seen as a WARLORD
SYSTEM which enriches the powerful at the expense of the worker and farmer. Will this
cause an upcoming political explosion/uprising?????
