Buddhist Psychology Lessons from Eastern Culture Introduction- In Buddhist thought, the idea of a stable personality is considered an illusion. Personality development is connected to spiritual progress. More advanced personalities are calm and compassionate. The prime example of the developed personality would be the Dalai Lama, spiritual leader of Buddhists, escaped from his country of Tibet in the face of the Chinese takeover in 1959. He shows great kindness to all people he meets, even the servants in the hotels where he stays. He is also humble, admitting when he does not know how to answer someone‟s questions. Early in life he showed great interest in mechanical things and probably would have been an engineer, had he not been proclaimed the Dalai Lama. In Buddhist thought, maladjustment shows up in impulsive or addictive behavior, selfishness, anxiety, and pathological emotional states. Healthy growth requires understanding the illusory notion of a separate self; recognizing the interrelationships of all people; accepting reality as it is. Buddhists believe that individualism is inherently unhealthy and a cause of suffering. Happiness is the reward for spiritual growth and right living. Healthy functioning requires undistorted perception. We must be open to reality, new information, and free from dogmatism of our viewpoint. The Dalai Lama has been interested in scientific testing of various phenomena from their beliefs- particularly the effects of meditation. This belief system considers the way people think to be a cause of misery. The fundamental error of thinking is our attachment to things we think should be permanent and unchanging- whether people or things. One milestone for growth in thinking is becoming aware of suffering and the reality of death. Meditation is thought to enable awareness of one‟s perceptions and to enable the person to bring them into line with reality. The Dalai Lama is able to bring into himself the suffering of others and develop compassion for them. Buddhists have actively sought to better understand the reality of life- this is being developed at the Mind and Life Institute in Colorado (http://www.mindandlife.org) The Dalai Lama sees science and religion as able to work together for the human good. Biologically, Buddhists believe that the root causes of disease are ignorance, desire or hatred. Mental processes can change biology, which has been affirmed in a variety of scientific tests. There is also a belief in karma, in the sense that one‟s suffering in this life, may be a result of a past karmic debt. The Dalai Lama himself lives a healthy life, although he was not able to maintain his health on a totally vegetarian diet, so he does eat meat. Buddhists are concerned with reducing suffering of others and promoting peace. They see society as either helping or hindering one‟s individual development. They also believe we can interpret many environments as learning experiences. The Dalai Lama‟s escape from Tibet, while personally sad, has brought his teachings to the West, where they may facilitate a different way of being in the world. He has been nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize because he has tried to implement some peace between China and Tibet. This viewpoint is considered in personality development theory because Buddhist thought contributes a different view of what is the healthy personality and what causes misery.
The Relevance of Buddhism for Personality Psychology It is interesting that one of the founders of modern psychology, William James, believed that the psychological ideas found in Buddhism would ultimately influence modern psychology. He was merely 100 years ahead of the curve. Horney studied Buddhism at the end of her life, and Carl Jung communicated with Buddhist Zen master at his home in 1958. Buddhism does not postulate the existence of a god, but it provides ways of knowing about reality based on personal experience. Buddhism does teach methods of meditation as means to achieve the awareness of truth. It also takes upon itself the task of alleviating suffering, which is akin to what therapists hope to achieve. Buddhism also teaches self-control and self-discipline, which is aligned with developing a healthy self. A Brief History of Buddhism Buddhism began about 2500 years ago, with Siddhartha Guatama, who tried to understand the nature of suffering during a quest for enlightenment. He rejected the multiple gods of Hinduism and the unequal caste system in favor of compassion and individual quest for enlightenment. The name, Buddha, was given to Siddhartha after he attained enlightenment. It means, “the Awakened One.” Others who quest and achieve enlightenment are called “buddhas” as well. This religion describes how people can become wise and enlightened, not due to a greater power, but due to one‟s own search. This religion stresses human nature and emphasizes ethics along the way. Both Hinduism and Buddhism share the idea of rebirth, however. This is the idea that existence is continuous. Along with this is the idea that one‟s condition at birth has something to do with intentional acts committed in a past life. In Western religion, the idea is that there will be a soul‟s continuation into heaven or hell. Buddhism teaches that the individual self is unreal, an illusion, so what continues after death is a component of the greater whole- we are one wave in an ocean. Major schools of Buddhism include: Theravada- Way of the Elders- emphasizes simple living Mahayana- The Great Raft or The Greater Vehicle- emphasizes universality and freedom from suffering and compassion. Tibetan Buddhism added the idea of a guru or teacher Zen- emphasizes meditation and use of koans (riddles used to overcome limited perceptions and rigidity of thought) Siddhartha Gautama was a child of wealth, whose father had heard a prophecy over his son that he would either become a political leader or a religious ascetic. His father wanted to see him become powerful in the world, so he protected him from real life by keeping him in the family‟s wealthy compound. At a certain point, however, Siddhartha wanted to see the rest of the world, so he left home and was stunned by the depth of suffering he witnessed outside. He wandered, hoping to understand the nature of the world- engaging in strict discipline as a monk, and even in indulgence in pleasures of a life of luxury. Neither extreme satisfied him. While meditating under the Bodhi-tree, he achieved enlightenment and understood how to get rid of suffering- by giving up illusions and desire. The rest of his life he taught others the means of dealing with pain, basically through following the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
The Four Noble Truths The Four Noble Truths convey the wisdom that reality, if accepted, produces positive emotional and spiritual change. People are taught to test truths for themselves. We are ignorant of the true nature of things, the dharma. We live in delusion, ignorance of the true nature of reality. This truth can be discovered through Buddhist teachings and meditation. Under this discipline, one can find beauty and truth everywhere. Nothing is rejected, as there is worth in all things. So we no longer try to only accepted “good” and reject evil. We come to accept reality in all its permutations. The First Noble Truth: There is Suffering Suffering comes in many forms: duhkha- unsatisfactoriness, frustration, disharmony, painfulness, wanting what we cannot have. WE also operate under the illusion that things are better than they are (we inherently know this through the ultimate disappointment of getting something we have really longed for and finding it to come up short.) Therapists try to help patients accept the reality of their lives. Horney compared duhkha to “basic anxiety” that she described. What is different with Buddhism is allowing the consciousness of suffering in. Most of us try to put suffering out of our minds, repressing painful experiences as much as possible. We also try to avoid doing things that produce suffering. This belief that suffering should be permitted is challenging for Westerners, as we tend to want to satisfy the desire, avoid the suffering. And if we can‟t avoid pain, we can at least feel sorry for ourselves. But that is not the Buddhist way. Curiously, our experimental findings in the West have found optimism to be associated with lower levels of depression. Buddhists would probably say this is an illusory peace. The Second Noble Truth: The Origin of Suffering The source of suffering is craving or attachment to desire. We are deluded about what would truly make us happy, so we crave the wrong things. Addiction is a prime example: the person believes if s/he got the drug or person that he is fixated on, he will be happy, free of suffering. Buddhists call this illusion, samsara, the wheel of suffering- in which the consequences of ignorant craving and consequent bad behavior cause continued suffering. Buddhists describe 3 kinds of desire: For sensory pleasure To become or continue to exist, including ambitions For annihilation or to get rid of something- troubling people or emotions These three resemble Freud‟s libido, ego, and thanatos. But the difficulty of this is ridding oneself of one‟s desires and attachments. Eliminating the cause will eliminate the effect of misery. So the cause of suffering is within, not found in external circumstances. It is craving and attachment to craving that produces suffering. The Third Noble Truth: The End of Suffering Detachment from craving is the key. This includes material goods, possessiveness of other people, although we can certainly love them. WE also may need to give up attachments to fixed ideas and attitudes. This requires giving up the ego or self, since it is really an illusion. Meditation allows attachments to be recognized and then released. They can only be released after being made known. Once one has gotten to the end of suffering, s/he has value to society as a teacher or adviser. Along with this role comes certain ethics: not stealing, taking life, lying, etc. These behaviors naturally stem from enlightenment, it is not a matter of repressing these desires. Ethics follow spiritual
development. Problems people suffer come from ignorance, not sin. Buddhism suggests people are basically good. The Fourth Noble Truth: The Eightfold Path There is an Eightfold Path which can help us achieve an end of suffering. This path is called “the Middle Way” because it avoids the extremes of either self-indulgence or self-mortification. The eight-fold path includes: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. While teachers can point the way, the responsibility for growth rests with each person. Buddhism and Personality Concepts Ego or Self- Western psychology accepts the idea of a stable self, one discovered gradually through development. Western religions also teach of a soul that endures past death. Buddhism teaches that the self is impermanent- there is no enduring separate self. Buddhism also teaches that we do not know ourselves. WE may think we are our body, our feelings, our perceptions, our intention or will or our consciousness. But the Buddhist concept of anatta is no-self- there is only a sequence of changes, not a stable permanent self. If we are attached to some illusory ideas of self it will prevent progress toward nirvana. Zen Buddhism describes the concept of self as unnecessary, “like adding legs to a snake.” Nirvana represents the annihilation of selfhood, with all its attachments and suffering. This is very different from Western traditions which emphasize developing a strong, autonomous self. This overemphasis on individualism is one cause of depression, however. Transience and Mortality- Buddhists teach that life is transitory, things are constantly changing. Our thoughts are transient, flowing from one image into another. Meditation allows the person to deconstruct the stability of things to see the world as a process, always in flux. Buddhism teaches that the universe has been created and destroyed many times, and this will continue to occur. One source of suffering is clinging to various states of existence- fearing loss, fearing death. Buddhists see patterns as repeating- there is rebirth. There is progression from one lifetime to the next (as well as regression, if necessary.) Most religions deal with fear of death and mortality by describing an immortal soul that does not die. Buddhism does not. Behavior: Its Causes and Consequences – behavior is caused by thought and intention. The mind is causal. Behavior can be changed by stopping the underlying thoughts. This also fits cognitive behaviorism. But Buddhists take it farther than merely substituting more adaptive thoughts- Buddhists believe it‟s essential to cease egoistic self-observation coming from the undisciplined mind. Consequences of Behavior: Karma Buddhists believe people have free will and can make choices about their lives, and these choices have consequences. This requires mental training to purify intention. Karma is intention. Willful action also has consequences- vipaka. Intentions have results- even beyond this lifetime. Rebirth will happen in this world, but the circumstances of rebirth have to do with one‟s behavior today. Good acts elevate circumstances in the following life. Bad behavior has the opposite effect. There are many states one can be reborn to, but it is possible to attain enlightenment in this life, in which case, rebirth ends. So karma becomes incentive for good behavior, but it can also serve to allow us to accept suffering when we see it- somehow they created this state and must learn from it.
Dependent Origination- karma is not the only intentional act, not the only cause and effect relationship. Dependent origination comes from Hinduism, the „Net of Indra‟ which is described as a jeweled net, where everything is interconnected and nothing is separate. So many interconnected factors determine any condition. We do not live in isolation. Attitude is one factor; exercise of free will another, as well as biological predispositions, social factors, etc. Mind and Body- Buddhists believe the mind and physical world are interconnected, so processes in the brain relate to our conscious experience; and psychological factors can affect the body, may predispose us to illness, or protect us. At any rate, there is no separation between the two, and even between our mind and body and those of others. (This is somewhat similar to the Aborigine hunters praying to the spirits of the animals that they hunt that they would accept their role as prey and bless the hunters.) Consciousness-the undisciplined mind is a chaos of ideas- the Buddhists call it the “drunken monkey.” This condition can be improved by meditation, which encourages altered consciousness, even lucid dreaming. Meditation can lead the person into awakening. (Budhi, the root of Buddhism, means to wake up.) It may be called enlightenment, as well. Awakening involves recognizing the true nature of things and the path to Buddhahood (finding one‟s true nature). Enlightenment comes later, as the person has overcome imperfections and delusions through following the eight-fold path. One model describes seven states of consciousness aligned with levels of enlightenment: Deep sleep, dreaming sleep, and waking state. Then the state attained during Transcendental Meditation, then the higher states are cosmic consciousness, God consciousness, and unity consciousness. At the 3 higher states, the self is no longer separate from the rest of the universe. Emotions – Buddhists believe emotions can be made healthier through learning. The natural outcome of spiritual development will be happiness. Happiness- according to Buddhist thought is not momentary pleasure but lasting happiness- sukha. Things that bring happiness in the short run often have unintended opposite consequences: junk food, drugs, passion. Likewise, if we knew the true nature of reality, we would make wiser choices and be happier. The Buddhist path teaches us the nature of things, unobscured by illusion. Anger – Buddhism is a peaceful religion, in contrast to angry religions, such as Islam and Christianity. Holy wars have been fought in these religious traditions, but Buddhism has a history of pacifism. Buddhism describes people in the grip of their anger as being in a “hell realm.” This is marked by aggression against enemies and retaliation. This is an unending cycle of pain. Anger can diminish when a person can expand his sense of self to include compassionate identification with others. When one is not ruled by desires or fears of another, the person is not provoked to anger. Specific techniques to deal with anger include: Mindful breathing Mindful walking Embracing our anger Looking deeply into the nature of our perceptions Looking deeply into the other person to realize s/he suffers a lot and needs help
None of these techniques rejects anger. It must not be rejected as a bad part of the self, to be overcome by the good self. it must be brought into awareness and treated with compassion- like an immature brother. Acceptance or understanding of the anger transforms it. People are then better able to regulate their emotions. It is possible that training experiences could be developed to teach people to control their emotions better. One case described a mildly mentally retarded man who learned to control his aggressive impulses by focusing attention on the soles of his feet, instead of the trigger for his anger. In Los Angeles, some programs with inner city kids have had them learn to make the sand mandalas with the monks in order to control and transform their anger. Love- even positive emotions can be problematic if they interfere with accurate perceptions of reality. If we focus too much on another, we sink into the belief that happiness is located outside the self. Sexual passion and even severe attachments to family and friends can disturb the calm and unattached mind. Emotion must be guided by the Middle Way. Three poisons are listed as dangerous: aggression or anger, ignorance, and passion. Passion tries to possess what we desire. Aggression rejects the object or person. Ignorance causes us to avoid or become indifferent to something. This is similar to Horney‟s interpersonal orientations: Moving toward, Moving against, and Moving away. Interpersonal Relationships and Society- as we achieve enlightenment, our relationships are transformed as well. Compassion is a central concept in Buddhism. It is similar to the Western concept of love. It also includes empathy or social interest. Compassion occurs as a consequence of realizing we are not separate from others. So we can abolish our selfish desires and feel for those around us who suffer. This can expand into concern for the environment as well as other people. Spiritually enlightened people who remain in the world as teachers for others (bodhisattva) embody compassion for others. Prejudice and violence stems from attachment to difference- to social identity. This is an area in which Buddhists disagree with Hindus. The Buddhists believe the caste system which separates people, rather than exhibiting compassion for them. Peace – as a person develops and expands his inner peace, he can create a more peaceful world. There have been cases of meditators focusing on a violence torn region of the world and reducing aggressive acts in that place as a result of their focused meditation. Buddhist leaders have been actively involved in the search for peace in the world, not just on a national level but in leading workshops for anger management. Community- sangha refers to “the community that lives in harmony and awareness.” No one lives in isolation and is not affected by others. Siddhartha himself practiced asceticism before finding the Middle Way- learning to accept help from others. We must learn to receive as well as give to others. If we cling to a self-image of independence or only helping others, this is an attachment that must be released. Other issues- environmental issues stem from human selfishness, from attachment to individual desires that lead to exploitation of others or the environment. Buddhism also recognizes that all creatures have a nature that should be respected. Spiritual Practices- meditation is the key spiritual practice of Buddhist life but there are also various forms of yoga which are other spiritual practices. These include: Bhakti yoga- contemplating a saint or God to develop love Hatha yoga- disciplines the body through postures/ exercises
Karma yoga- serves others without egocentric motivation Jnana yoga- relinquishes false self-concepts and explores reality A guru is a spiritual teacher who may offer specific spiritual practices to develop awareness. Zen uses koans- riddles that challenge our flaccid logic. This is used to break through barriers of thought. Meditation- this practice is undertaken to achieve insight and well-being. Consciousness may be focused on an object, one‟s breathing, or merely attending to thoughts and allowing them to fade away. This practice can control the “drunken monkey” of consciousness. As the mind tames consciousness, deeper layers of consciousness can arise and be experienced. Meditation has a calming effect on most people. It produces calmness and enhanced awareness. One result is improved cognitive functioning. Worry is controlled; the focus is on productive thought. Concentrative meditation- focuses attention on an object, often the breath, in order to reduce distractions. Mindfulness meditation- allows thoughts to appear but observes them without judgment. Zen meditation (zazen) are mindfulness meditations. The Process of Meditation- when the breathing is used as focus for meditation, it becomes a conditioned stimulus for the meditative mindset. The position, usually a lotus position allows one to maintain awareness. Using meditation, it calms the waters of our emotional life. When the water is calm, we can see what is below- it allows the deeper contents of the mind to arise- the subtle consciousness that is usually obscured by life chaos. Meditation turns one‟s focus inward, and then pleasure is released from withininner joy. It can be described as a blissful state. Yet the person is alert and aware, simply not disturbed by the world around. There may be intrusions of past memories or thoughts, even sensing a spiritual visitor around. Meditation and the Control of Attention and Perception- there are reports of enhanced attention after meditation. There have also been seen enhanced creativity, practical intelligence, and field independence. Meditation teaches people to observe things, but change their responses, gaining control over their inner experience. We think perceptions are a natural response to sensations, but there is a moment of judgment which sets up our perceptions. Also our perceptions are often partial, not allowing us to see the entire picture before we exert judgment. (The story of the blind men feeling the elephant is an example of this. So we should not remain attached to our perceptions of reality. This is similar to Carl Rogers‟ unconditional positive regard.) There is a gate of incoming sensory information to the brain which contributes to the sense of self. Experienced meditators can close the gate to these sensory inputs. (Interestingly, morphine has some similar effects in the brain- fearlessness, pain reduction, and euphoria.) So the meditator can experience peace, joy, timelessness, and connection to a world that is experienced without the distortions of attachment to self. This could allow the person to set aside a history of trauma or pain, fear, misperceptions. The 17 Moments of Perception- mental processes create the illusion of something that is solid and permanent. Buddhist texts describe 17 successive moments of perception which we can know through introspection. If we can make ourselves aware of these transitions we can experience a state called pure awareness- this is before perception and sense of self enters the mix. This can even facilitate subliminal
perceptions which are not usually evident to our sensations. There is an association with hypnosis, in which part of the perceptual process stops while a related process continues. So a hypnotized person can be aware of pain but not perceive it as pain. Brain Measurement during Meditation- meditation has been compared to hibernation in other animals. It produces slower EEG activity, increased alpha wave activity, feelings of calmness, and ultimately it changes the way the brain responds to stimuli. Psychological and Health Effects of Meditation- Meditation has had positive effects on a variety of medical problems, as well as improving memory, intelligence, and academic performance. Other benefits include enhancing moral development and ego development, although there is reported a loss of sense of self in meditation. Buddhism and Psychotherapy Applications to Psychotherapy- the goals of therapy and Buddhism are similar, in trying to decrease personal suffering and increase one‟s compassion for others. Therapy focuses more on symptoms and so is more useful when one is in a pathological state. Buddhism is more helpful when people are functioning at a high level of integration. Cognitive behaviorists have incorporated meditation into treatment for a variety of disorders, even for addiction and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Borderline patients can find some peace using Buddhist principles of acceptance and mindfulness. Meditation is useful for therapists to cope with the stress of dealing with so many sick patients as well as to deal with countertransference issues. One significant difference in Buddhism and therapy is that therapists try to strengthen the self and Buddhists challenge the health of the individual separate self. Motivation and Desire: Understanding and Treating Addiction= Buddhism asserts that desire produces suffering and addiction is craving carried to an unhealthy level. Addiction keeps people stuck in a cycle of needing, finding fulfillment, and then craving more. There is no ego development according to Maslow‟s need hierarchy. Satiation only leads to further cravings. Buddhism describes such empty cravings as hungry ghosts- an existence characterized by persistent, unsatisfied cravings. The imagery of this realm is vivid: the hungry ghosts have gigantic, empty bellies, but can‟t eat enough to be satisfied, because their mouths are tiny. Buddhist philosophy does not postulate a Higher Power, so it may be more amenable to some addicts than the 12-step programs. Some of the Buddhist interventions for addiction include: mindfulness and developing compassion through meditation. Meditation can motivate people to commit to self-improvement and spiritual growth. Meditation can be an alternative behavior to substitute when a craving arises. One Buddhist teaching that is relevant is the idea of impermanence- nothing lasts, not even the craving or high. The Importance of the Dialogue Buddhism is one religion which is particularly receptive to science, as it is invested in staying in touch with reality as it is. It is not a dogmatic religion and encourages members to think through their own issues to try to judge reality. Even Albert Einstein found Buddhism appealing, and he suggested this religion would become important to people in the future since it is based on the true experience of all things, as
well as developing an appreciation of the natural world and the unity of the world (something particularly of interest to Einstein who was working on a grand unifying theory of the physical world.) Another concept appealing to Einstein is the idea in Buddhism of time being cyclical- not linear, persistently moving forward. Buddhism is a theory whose time seems to be coming, but nonetheless, posits an integrated view of the human condition and the possibilities for growth and development for all people.