BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES OUTLINE
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY NEO-HULLIANS AND EARLY SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
LANGUAGE AND MEDIATION IN DISCRIMINATION LEARNING
CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (BANDURA) 1959 - SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT 1963 - MODELING 1977 - RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM 1986 - SELF-REGULATION SELF-OBSERVATION SELF-REACTIVE INFLUENCES
EVALUATION STRENGTHS AND CONTRIBUTIONS LIMITATIONS AND CRITICISMS
LECTURE 4 - 1
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND - INTRODUCTION - FROM H. STEVENSON IN MUSSEN HANDBOOK A PERSISTENT ISSUE IN HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY CONCERNS THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF: COGNITIVE EXPERIENCE versus OVERT BEHAVIOR (AND SURROUNDING STIMULI) PRIOR TO THE 20th CENTURY, PHILOSOPHERS AND PSYCHOLOGISTS DEBATED VARYING INTERPRETATIONS OF EXPERIENCE IN TERMS OF SENSATIONS, PERCEPTIONS, ASSOCIATIONS, FEELINGS, FACULTIES OF THE MIND IN THE FIRST HALF OF THIS CENTURY, A NEW VIEW DEVELOPED: LOGICAL POSITIVISM: SCIENTISTS SHOULD DEAL ONLY WITH OBSERVABLE EVENTS RATIONALE: - SCIENCE IS HAMPERED AND CONFUSED BY EFFORTS TO EXPLAIN SUBJECTIVE PHENOMENA - CONCEPTS AND VARIABLES HAVE MEANING ONLY AS THEY CAN BE OPERATIONALLY DEFINED - SCIENTISTS MUST DEVELOP EXPLICIT METHODS AND PROCEDURES FOR GATHERING DATA - NEED A SET OF SYNTACTIC RULES FOR INTERPRETING DATA IMPLICATIONS: POSITIVISM PROVIDED PHILOSOPHICAL JUSTIFICATION FOR BEHAVIORIST LEARNING THEORIES AND METHODS, INCLUDING: - STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR - EXPERIMENTAL AND LABORATORY STUDIES CONSEQUENCES: - DEVELOPMENT OF RIGOROUS, EXPLICIT METHODS FOR STUDYING LEARNING - A PLETHORA OF THEORIES - POWERFUL TOOLS FOR MODIFYING BEHAVIOR
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HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF LEARNING THEORIES EMPIRICIST ASSOCIATIONIST PHILOSOPHERS: LOCKE, MILL, BAIN, SPENCER (1600-1900) PAVLOV - RESPONDENT CONDITIONING - OPERATIONALIZED ASSOCIATIONIST PRINCIPLES - PROVIDED A USEFUL EXPERIMENTAL PARADIGM - PROPOSED A TESTABLE ASSOCIATIONIST THEORY WATSON - BEHAVIORISM - POPULARIZED CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES IN U.S. - POLEMIC BEHAVIORIST (ANTI-INSTINCT) - APPLIED CONDITIONING PARADIGM TO EMOTIONS (ALBERT EXPERIMENT) - OFFERED CHILD-REARING ADVICE THORNDIKE - CONNECTIONISM - INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING - IMPORTANCE OF REWARD - LAW OF EFFECT - CAST LEARNER AS ACTIVE - FATHER OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY SKINNER - OPERANT CONDITIONING - PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT LEARNING - CONCEPTS OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT, PUNISHMENT - VERSATILE PARADIGM - DENIED VALUE OF THEORIES - DENIED SCIENTIFIC STATUS OF MENTAL EVENTS - DEVELOPED POWERFUL TECHNOLOGY HULL - MATHEMATICO-DEDUCTIVE THEORY - BASED UPON PAVLOV AND THORNDIKE - POSTULATED INNER EVENTS AND STATES: . DRIVE (D) . MEDIATING RESPONSES (rg - sg) SPENCE AND KUENE LANGUAGE AND MEDIATION (rm) ACQUISITION OF S - R ASSOCIATION VS. PERCEPTION OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STIMULI CRITIQUE: - REDUCTIONIST - TOOK NO ACCOUNT OF QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN: ANIMALS AND HUMANS CHILDREN AND ADULTS MENTALLY HANDICAPPED AND GENIUSES
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NEO-HULLIANS - SOCIAL LEARNING THEORISTS J. DOLLARD, L. DOOB, N. MILLER, O. H. MOWRER & R. SEARS - FRUSTRATION AND AGGRESSION (1939) - COMPARED PSYCHOANALYTIC AND HULLIAN CONCEPTS - FRUSTRATION = DRIVE --> AGGRESSION N. MILLER & J. DOLLARD - SOCIAL LEARNING AND IMITATION (1941) - IMITATION = REINFORCEMENT OF "MATCHING RESPONSES" J. DOLLARD & N. MILLER - PERSONALITY AND PSYCHOTHERAPY (1950) O. H. MOWRER - LEARNING THEORY AND PERSONALITY DYNAMICS (1950) - SECONDARY SELF-REINFORCEMENT SEARS, MACCOBY & LEVIN - PATTERNS OF CHILD REARING (1957) - ANTECEDENTS OF DEPENDENCY, AGGRESSION, SEX-TYPING, CONSCIENCE
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LECTURE 4 - 5
CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY A. BANDURA & R. WALTERS - ADOLESCENT AGGRESSION (1959) BASIC CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL LEARNING: DRIVE LEARNED MOTIVES DISCRIMINATION GENERALIZATION INHIBITION REINFORCEMENT LEARNED REWARDS ENVIRONMENTAL EVENT EXTINCTION HABIT INSTRUMENTAL ACT GOAL RESPONSE THE SOCIALIZATION PROCESS CONSISTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF HABITUAL RESPONSE PATTERNS THAT ARE ACCEPTABLE IN THE SOCIETY IN WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL LIVES. THE LEARNING OF SUCH HABITS, OR CUE-RESPONSE ASSOCIATIONS, REQUIRES THE PRESENCE OF SOME KIND OF DRIVE OR MOTIVATING PROCESS AND THE OCCURRENCE OF A REWARD OR REINFORCEMENT. ANY ACTION SEQUENCE MAY BE ANALYZED IN TERMS OF INSTRUMENTAL ACTS THAT LEAD TOWARD THE GOAL, AND THE FINAL DRIVE-REDUCING GOAL RESPONSE." BANDURA & WALTERS (1963) SOCIAL LEARNING AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT REJECTED PSYCHOANALYTIC AND NEO-HULLIAN CONCEPTS (AS TOO VAGUE) IN FAVOR OF MICROSCOPIC CONCEPTS SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT, VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT, MODELING, AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: "THE WEAKNESS OF LEARNING APPROACHES THAT DISCOUNT THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL VARIABLES ARE NOWHERE MORE CLEARLY REVEALED THAN IN THEIR TREATMENT OF THE ACQUISITION OF NOVEL RESPONSES, A CRUCIAL ISSUE FOR ANY ADEQUATE THEORY OF LEARNING." (p. 1-2). EXPERIMENTAL PARADIGM = EFFECTS OF MODELS SELF-CONTROL = RESISTANCE TO DEVIATION ACQUISITION THROUGH DIRECT REINFORCEMENT ACQUISITION THROUGH MODELING
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BANDURA (1977) SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY COGNITIVE DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE "EXTREME BEHAVIORISM . . . HAS NEGLECTED DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR ARISING FROM COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING" (p. 10). "PEOPLE LEARN AND RETAIN BEHAVIOR MUCH BETTER BY USING COGNITIVE AIDS THAT THEY GENERATE THAN BY REINFORCED REPETITIVE PERFORMANCE. WITH GROWING EVIDENCE THAT COGNITION HAS CAUSAL INFLUENCE ON BEHAVIOR, THE ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE INFLUENCE OF INTERNAL DETERMINANTS BEGAN TO LOSE THEIR FORCE" (p. 10). E.G. EMPHASIZED ATTENTION AND RETENTION PROCESSES IN EFFECTS OF MODELING, OUTCOME EXPECTANCIES AS DETERMINANTS OF MOTIVATION
RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM: B
P <---------------> E BEHAVIOR (B), COGNITION AND OTHER PERSONAL FACTORS (P), AND ENVIRONMENT (E) ALL OPERATE INTERACTIVELY AS DETERMINANTS OF EACH OTHER - MULTIPLICITY OF INTERACTING INFLUENCES. - RECIPROCAL = MUTUAL ACTION BETWEEN CAUSAL FACTORS
A1 B1 A2 B2 A3
P1 St--->R---->Sreinf
P2
St--->R---->Sreinf
P1
St--->R---->Sreinf
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SAME EVENTS CHANGE THEIR STATUS FROM BEHAVIOR TO ENVIRONMENT AND FROM ENVIRONMENT TO BEHAVIOR AT DIFFERENT ENTRY POINTS IN THE FLOW OF INTERACTION BETWEEN TWO PEOPLE
BANDURA - SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF THOUGHT AND ACTION: A SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY (1986) TABLE OF CONTENTS: MODELS OF HUMAN NATURE AND CAUSALITY OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING ENACTIVE LEARNING SOCIAL DIFFUSION AND INNOVATION PREDICTIVE KNOWLEDGE AND FORETHOUGHT INCENTIVE MOTIVATORS VICARIOUS MOTIVATORS SELF-REGULATORY MECHANISMS SELF-EFFICACY COGNITIVE REGULATORS SELF-REGULATION OF BEHAVIOR "THE SOCIAL-LEARNING PRINCIPLES PRESENTED IN THIS BOOK LEAD ONE TO EXPECT THAT MOST PERSONS WILL ACQUIRE DISCRIMINATIVE SELF-CONTROLLING BEHAVIOR AS A CONSEQUENCE OF EXPOSURE TO DIFFERENTIAL MODELING CUES AND DIFFERENTIAL PATTERNS OF REINFORCEMENT ." (p. 222) - BANDURA & WALTERS (1963) "IF ACTIONS WERE DETERMINED SOLELY BY EXTERNAL REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS, PEOPLE WOULD BEHAVE LIKE WEATHERVANES, CONSTANTLY SHIFTING DIRECTION TO CONFORM TO WHATEVER MOMENTARY INFLUENCE HAPPENED TO IMPINGE UPON THEM." (p. 335) ". . .PEOPLE DISPLAY CONSIDERABLE SELF-DIRECTION IN THE FACE OF MANY COMPETING INFLUENCES." (p. 335) - BANDURA (1986) SUBFUNCTIONS IN SELF-REGULATION OF BEHAVIOR SELF-OBSERVATION JUDGEMENT (SELF-EVALUATION) SELF-REACTION
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SELF-OBSERVATION FUNCTION AND SUBPROCESSES FUNCTIONS: PROVIDES INFORMATION FOR: SETTING PERFORMANCE STANDARDS EVALUATING CHANGES IN BEHAVIOR SELF-DIAGNOSTIC DEVICE SELF-MOTIVATING DEVICE PERFORMANCE DIMENSIONS: REGULARITY PROXIMITY ACCURACY JUDGMENTAL PROCESSES PERSONAL (INTERNAL) STANDARDS ACQUISITION REFLECTIVE APPRAISALS DIRECT TUITION MODELING GENERALIZATION PROPERTIES OF STANDARDS CHALLENGE EXPLICITNESS PROXIMITY SOCIAL (REFERENTIAL) COMPARISONS SOURCE OF STANDARDS NORMATIVE COMPARISON SOCIAL COMPARISON SELF-COMPARISON COLLECTIVE (GROUP) COMPARISON VALUATION OF ACTIVITY PERFORMANCE ATTRIBUTION PERSONAL LOCUS EXTERNAL LOCUS
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SELF-REACTIVE INFLUENCES CREATION OF ---> BEHAVIOR ---> INCENTIVES POSITIVE SELFREACTION
STANDARDS ARE TRANSLATED INTO GOALS INCENTIVES MOTIVATE PERFORMANCE AND BEHAVIOR THAT ACCORDS TO STANDARDS TANGIBLE SELF-MOTIVATORS SELF-EVALUATIVE MOTIVATORS: (PRIDE, SELF-RESPECT, SELF-SATISFACTION) DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-REGULATORY SKILLS SELF-MONITORING MARSHALLING ENVIRONMENTAL SUPPORTS COGNITIVE AIDS (VISUALIZING) SELF-INCENTIVES IMPLICATIONS DYSFUNCTIONAL SELF-EVALUATION SYSTEMS DEPRESSION SELF-MONITORING STANDARD-SETTING CONCEPTUAL BY-PASS OF THE SELF-SYSTEM RENAMING AND EXTERIORIZATION SELECTIVE REGRESS OF CAUSES RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL FACTORS SELECTIVE ACTIVATION AND DISENGAGEMENT OF INTERNAL CONTROL MORAL JUSTIFICATION MINIMIZING, IGNORING CONSEQUENCES DEHUMANIZATION, ATTRIBUTION OF BLAME
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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: BROADENED CONCEPT OF REINFORCEMENT - REINFORCEMENT CONSTITUTES FEEDBACK - VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT - SELF REINFORCEMENT BROADENED CONCEPT OF LEARNING - "R" INCLUDES SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATIONS, IMAGES EXPLAINED SOCIALIZATION PROCESSES - MODELING - RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM CONCEPTUALIZED COGNITIVE PROCESSES - GOAL SETTING - OUTCOME EXPECTANCIES - VERBAL SELF INSTRUCTIONS
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STRENGTHS AND CONTRIBUTIONS BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY 1. CONCEPTS AND METHODS CHALLENGED THEORIES EMPLOYING VAGUE, GLOBAL, REIFIED (INNERENTITY) EXPLANATIONS. HELPED PSYCHOLOGISTS CIRCUMVENT FRUITLESS DEBATES RE: NATURE OF SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE, BUT WAS "TOO SUCCESSFUL" 2. IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO EXPLANATIONS AT SITUATIONAL (MECHANISTIC) AND ADAPTIVE LEVELS OF ANALYSIS (AHISTORICAL, SHORT-TERM EXPLANATIONS) (E.G. MODELING) 3. FACILITATED DESCRIPTION AND EXPLANATION OF S - R - rf CONTINGENCIES; EXPLAINS SITUATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING. 4. DEVELOPED OBJECTIVE METHODS FOR STUDYING THE DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR. "AN IMPORTANT ASPECT OF THE BEHAVIORIST MOVEMENT WAS ITS EMPHASIS ON EXPLICITNESS IN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA. . . . ITS IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS ARE METHODOLOGICAL, RATHER THAN THEORETICAL." - STEVENSON (1983) 5. CONCEPTUAL SYSTEMS AND PRINCIPLES DO EXPLAIN THE SIMPLER FORMS OF LEARNING, E.G. AT SENSORI-MOTOR, PREOPERATIONAL LEVELS 6. TECHNOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR CHANGES BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION OPERANT CONDITIONING ANALYSIS OF REINFORCEMENTS AND PUNISHMENTS TEACHING MACHINES TASK ANALYSIS PRACTICAL FRAMEWORK FOR PRACTITIONERS
DESENSITIZATION
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EVALUATION: LIMITATIONS OF BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES BEHAVIORIST THEORIES 1. FAIL TO EXPLAIN PERCEPTION, COGNITION, AFFECT AS ASPECTS OF LEARNING. 2. DOGMATIC 3. REDUCTIONIST - SHUNS DESCRIPTION (EXCEPT S - R, R - S CONTINGENCIES) S = S = S (EQUIPOTENTIALITY OF STIMULI) R = R = R (RESPONSE EQUIVALENCE) REDUCTIONISM IS ANTITHETICAL TO THE DESCRIPTIVE AND EXPLANATORY GOALS OF SCIENCE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (AND BLT) 4. NO ANALYSIS AT STRUCTURAL OR DEVELOPMENTAL LEVELS - EXPLAINS SHORT TERM CHANGES, BUT NOT ENDURING CHANGES - DOES NOT EXPLAIN ENDURING, PERVASIVE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 5. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IS INFORMAL, NOT SYSTEMATIC
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DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN LEARNING: I. THE ROLE OF MEDIATION IN DISCRIMINATION LEARNING PERSPECTIVES: HULLIAN VERSUS GESTALT EMPIRICIST ("OBJECTIVE") VERSUS RATIONALIST (PHENOMENOLOGICAL) HULLIAN VIEW: LEARNING = ACQUISITION OF NEW S - R ASSOCIATIONS GESTALT VIEW: LEARNING = ACQUISITION OF NEW PERCEPTIONS OF RELATIONSHIPS AMONG STIMULI CRITICAL EXPERIMENTAL TEST: DISCRIMINATION LEARNING PARADIGM: CHOICE OF "B" IS REINFORCED
A B TRANSFER TEST (LEARNING OF A NEW "CORRECT" RESPONSE):
B C FINDINGS: SUBJECTS MORE OFTEN CHOSE (C), THE SMALLER OF THE TWO TEST STIMULI = EVIDENCE OF TRANSPOSITION INTERPRETATIONS: DATA WERE PROBLEMATICAL FOR HULLIANS: EVIDENCE OF TRANSPOSITION WAS CITED AS SUPPORTIVE OF GESTALT THEORY K. SPENCE'S (HULLIAN) EXPLANATION: STIMULUS GENERALIZATION CURVES CORRESPOND TO THE "PSYCHOPHYSICAL DIFFERENCES" BETWEEN THE STIMULUS PAIRS ALTERNATIVE HULLIAN INTERPRETATION SUGGESTED BY M. KUENNE (1946): LANGUAGE ABILITY MIGHT EXPLAIN AND PREDICT DIFFERENCES IN RESULTS FOR ADULT HUMANS AND OLDER CHILDREN S-r-s-R S --> r (= "SMALL" =) s --> R COMPARATIVE STUDIES INDICATED THAT ADULTS AND OLDER CHILDREN MORE OFTEN CHOSE (C), THE SMALLER OF THE TWO TEST STIMULI = EVIDENCE OF "LANGUAGE MEDIATED RESPONSE" HOWEVER, ANIMALS AND YOUNGER CHILDREN MORE OFTEN CHOSE (B), THE LARGER - EVIDENCE OF SPECIFIC S-R ASSOCIATION IMPLICATIONS: - DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES COULD BRIDGE THE GAP BETWEEN STUDIES OF ANIMALS AND THOSE OF HUMANS. - LEARNING ABILITIES OF CHILDREN VERSUS ADULTS ARE QUALITATIVELY DIFFERENT. LECTURE 4 - 14
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN LEARNING: II. MEDIATION IN REVERSAL AND NONREVERSAL SHIFTS. - H. KENDLER & T. KENDLER (1962) (NEO-HULLIANS) PARADIGM: TWO DIMENSIONAL DISCRIMINATION TASK, E.G. SIZE AND COLOR SUBJECT LEARNS TO DISTINGUISH ONE PROPERTY AS CORRECT, E.G. "LARGE" TEST FOR TRANSFER TO LEARNING OF A NEW RESPONSE: - (1) WITHIN A DIMENSION (SIZE), E.G. FROM "LARGE" TO "SMALL" = REVERSAL SHIFT - (2) ACROSS DIMENSIONS, (SIZE TO COLOR) E.G. FROM "LARGE" TO "BLACK" = NONREVERSAL SHIFT
FINDINGS: - YOUNG CHILDREN (BELOW 6) SHOW POSITIVE TRANSFER ON NON-REVERSAL SHIFT. - OLDER CHILDREN SHOW POSITIVE TRANSFER ON REVERSAL SHIFT AND NEGATIVE TRANSFER ON NONREVERSAL SHIFT.
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INTERPRETATIONS: WITH YOUNG CHILDREN, REINFORCEMENT STRENGTHENS APPROACH TENDENCIES TOWARD SPECIFIC STIMULI, E.G. IF "LARGE" IS REINFORCED WHEN CHOSEN, THEN "BLACK" IS ALSO REINFORCED 50%. THEREFORE, A REVERSAL SHIFT SHOULD BE DIFFICULT BECAUSE IF "SMALL" WAS NEVER REINFORCED, HIGH NEGATIVE TRANSFER WILL OCCUR.
ON A NONREVERSAL SHIFT (E.G. TO "BLACK") SOME POSITIVE TRANSFER - OR AT LEAST NO NEGATIVE TRANSFER - SHOULD BE FOUND BECAUSE "BLACK" WAS REINFORCED 50%
WITH OLDER CHILDREN, REINFORCEMENT STRENGTHENS MEDIATING VERBAL RESPONSES, E.G. "SIZE = BIG" IN A REVERSAL SHIFT, THIS DIMENSION IS STILL RELEVANT SO PART OF THE LEARNED MEDIATING RESPONSE ("SIZE") IS STILL FACILITATIVE OF POSITIVE TRANSFER. OLDER CHILDREN HAVE DEVELOPED LANGUAGE ABILITIES AND THE CAPACITY TO USE LABELS TO MEDIATE. IMPLICATIONS THE CONCEPT OF MEDIATION COULD EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN COMPLEX HUMAN LEARNING AND PROBLEM SOLVING. THE CONCEPT BECAME UBIQUITOUS IN POST HOC EXPLANATIONS BY LEARNING THEORISTS AND PROBLEMS WITH SUCH EXPLANATIONS BECAME EVIDENT: THE MEANING OF THE TERM CHANGED: MEDIATION = LABELING RESPONSE versus MEDIATION = "A SELF-GENERATED REPRESENTATIONAL RESPONSE THAT ABSTRACTS FEATURES OF THE ENVIRONMENT" - KENDLER STUDIES SHOWED THAT KNOWING A LABEL DOES NOT ALWAYS RESULT ITS USE AS A MEANS OF GUIDING BEHAVIOR. SOME WORDS DO NOT FUNCTION AS MEDIATORS, EVEN WHEN USED = MEDIATION DEFICIENCY SOME CHILDREN USE A GIVEN MEDIATOR ON ONE TASK, BUT FAIL TO USE THE SAME MEDIATOR ON ANOTHER TASK = PRODUCTION DEFICIENCY - FLAVELL LECTURE 4 - 16
CONCLUSIONS
THE VERBAL MEDIATION HYPOTHESIS TURNED OUT TO BE A GROSS OVERSIMPLIFICATION OF THE COMPLEX MANNER IN WHICH LANGUAGE INFLUENCES LEARNING.
I.E. VERBALIZATION OF SOLUTION STRATEGIES INVOLVES MORE THAN LABELING: RULES, HEURISTIC STRATEGIES, METAMEMORY
ABANDONMENT OF THE MEDIATION HYPOTHESIS WAS ACCOMPANIED BY GENERAL DISILLUSIONMENT WITH THE NEOBEHAVIORIST APPROACH - H. STEVENSON (1983)
"NEOBEHAVIORISM AS ORIGINALLY ENVISIONED BY HULL HAS UNDERGONE SIGNIFICANT CHANGES: A RETREAT FROM THE IDEALS OF RIGOROUSLY DEFINED THEORETICAL DEDUCTIONS, AN ABANDONMENT OF CONDITIONING AS THE MAJOR SOURCE OF THEORETICAL HYPOTHESES, AND A WITHDRAWAL FROM THE GOAL OF A GENERAL BEHAVIORAL THEORY TO MORE MODEST CONCEPTIONS." - KENDLER & KENDLER (1975)
VESTIGE = "BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS" -S. BIJOU & D. BAER IN R. VASTA (1989)
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