shooting star tattoo designs

When East Meets West on the Skin: An Analysis of Tattoos, Meaning, and Imagery of the New Age Movement Brian Robbins Stacy Morgan, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of American Studies Tattoos have been a part of human culture for centuries. Now that tattoos have become more common in America, their styles and patterns have diversified greatly. This study examines the relationship between the image or design of a tattoo and the meaning placed on it by its owner by using qualitative interviews with both tattoo artists and tattooed people in Alabama. The distinction between “traditional” tattoo patterns (concrete image and use of English letters) and modern or “New-Age” patterns (abstract and indigenous images and non-English letters) are examined. Findings are all listed and seem to confirm the current trends reported in tattoo literature regarding the popularity of “New-Age” imagery among Americans. Literature Review Tattoos, along with sculpture and painting, are one of the oldest art forms on Earth, predating architecture, literature, and metal-working by many millennia. Tattoos have existed for at least five thousand years in Europe, perhaps even longer (Scarre, 2001). People have gotten tattoos across different cultures for numerous reasons. In New Zealand, for example, a tattoo mapped a family history and even an identity for a person (DeMello, 2000). Eighteenth century sailors made use of tattoos, not only for aesthetic reasons but also to provide practical magical protection from the dangers and mysteries of the sea (Steward, 1990). The word “tattoo,” as well as the practice, was first introduced to European sailors in the eighteenth century by Polynesian islanders and was carried by these sailors until it made the “jump” to land and was entrenched in “fringe” society by the nineteenth century. It has been a part of Western culture ever since (Sanders, 1989). Studies of so-called “primitive” cultures, such as those 159 The University of Alabama McNair Journal in South America, Africa, Asia, and Polynesia, have provided extensive information on tattoos within the context of those cultures, but the practice and study of tattooing in America is more recent. Half a century ago in the U.S., tattoos were the domain of sailors, bikers, gang members, and others considered “outsiders” or “rough people” (Steward, 1990). People gave many of the same reasons for getting tattoos as they do today, including aesthetics, group identity, rebellion, and individuality. Since tattoos were almost always the domain of men at the time, showing oneʼs masculinity was considered an important motive. Tattooing is also performed as a rite of passage and to mark events in a personʼs life (Steward, 1990). There is a tattoo revolution in America, however, and this revolution is changing conventional notions about tattoos (Atkinson, 2004). Part of the “tattoo revolution” is the increasing number of women who get tattooed, a phenomenon that has grown since the 1960s (Bell, 1999; Wisner, 2004). Traditional tattoos have consisted of “stock” images and have included things such as nude women, skulls, hearts, and words (Steward, 1990). The recent shift in tattoos has been toward “ancient” designs and has included abstract images, Asian characters, and certain animals (such as dragons), as well as other designs which are associated with “primitive cultures” (Hong, 2003). These designs mark a shift toward the customization of tattoos, as opposed to the use of a stock image (Underwood, 1991). This shift is associated with the “New-Age” movement in America and Europe. “New-Age” is defined in the Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1997, p.693) as follows: A diverse set of organizations united by their enthusiasm for the creation of a new era of enlightenment and harmony in the “Aquarian Age.” For some, this has already begun, but for others it has not yet arrived. Believing it to constitute a new stage in the development of human history, enthusiasts are convinced that the evolution this time will be primarily spiritual and psychological, rather than structural. The end result in this Aquarian Age will be the emergence of a new mind: consciousness will be all in all. New Age “teachings” are characterized by an emphasis on monism, relativism, individual autonomy, and the rejection of the Judaeo-Christian emphasis on sin as the ultimate cause of evil in the world. Instead, New Age posits lack of knowledge and awareness as the root of humanityʼs problems. It is eclectic in nature and gathering in a wide range of people and teachings if they reinforce the central concern. 160 When East Meets West on the Skin The “New-Age” movement has grown out of the increased interest in Eastern ideas by Western culture in the 1960s, as well as the adoption of Eastern and ancient Western images and terms (DeMello, 2000). “People are going back to tribal or Celtic designs for a more significant or deeper meaning” (Underwood, 1991, p.42). Such use of imagery coincides with the emergence of “New-Age” religions which are based on ancient European and Eastern beliefs, as well as the resurgence of Native American traditions. These include Wicca and/or witchcraft, as well as Asatru, the modern practice of ancient Norse religion (DeMello, 2000). Modern witchcraft as well as many aspects of the “New-Age” movement began with the repealing of witchcraft laws in England and the publication of Witchcraft Today by Gerald Gardner in the 1950s. Gardner contributed to the resurgence of ancient European religions which spread to America (Pike, 2004). The “New-Age” movement has had a major impact on American art and symbology. Mandalas, Chinese writing, and Celtic symbols have become increasingly common in the tattoo industry. Tattoos have begun to be associated with magic and ritual (DeMello, 2000) as well as the embracing of pain (Nyberg, 1999) and have become just as much an identifier of interest and belief as something aesthetically pleasing. Since the art of a culture often reflects the views and beliefs of that culture at a certain time, tattoos act as a marker, signifying what is important in a culture, and frequently reflect new ideas that have been introduced to and spread through a culture or sub-culture. Most tattoo studies in North America focus on major cities such as Chicago in the U.S. (Steward, 1990) and Calgary and Toronto in Canada (Atkinson, 2004; Underwood, 1991). Most media coverage of tattoo events focuses on tattoo extremists which fall into the stereotypical “biker” genre of tattoo culture (DeMello, 1995). This Study This study aimed to contribute new information to the body of literature on the anthropological study of tattoos in America. More specifically, the goals of this study were to examine the images that are chosen, meanings ascribed to tattoos, and contemporary meanings given compared to traditional prescribed meanings. A secondary goal of this study was to examine the frequency of tattoos among both genders and what relationships, if any, this had to someone choosing a “New-Age” tattoo and the meaning ascribed to said tattoo. It was posited that this frequency may also provide a marker of the extent to which “New-Age” symbology, and perhaps even belief, has spread. 161 The University of Alabama McNair Journal Methodology Participants Participants in this study included students at The University of Alabama and tattoo artists from the cities of Tuscaloosa and Birmingham. Students must have been enrolled in a Summer Term II class. Tattoo artists must have been working in a shop in either Tuscaloosa or Birmingham or one of the surrounding metropolitan areas. Students. A total of fifteen professors were chosen at random from the University of Alabama Summer II Course Catalogue. All were informed about the research project and asked if the researcher could administer questionnaires in his or her class with a projected time needed of ten to fifteen minutes. Eight professors responded positively, classes were visited, and ten students were recruited as participants. Artists. Tattoo artists were contacted by phone and informed of the study. Those who were interested informed the researcher of an appropriate time to visit. Three served as participants, one woman and one man from the Birmingham area and one man from Tuscaloosa. Procedures Students were asked if they had a tattoo, and those who did were provided with a questionnaire. Artists were also given a questionnaire. Questionnaires given to student participants (see Appendix A) asked what type of tattoo they had and why they chose that image as well as their gender and age. Questionnaires for the artists (Appendix B) addressed frequently requested styles, images, and changes in popular tattoos that the artists may have noticed. All participants were given an informed consent form as well, outlining the research project and providing contact information for questions. Results and Analysis Tattooed Persons Six (60%) of the ten student participants were female, four (40%) male. Two-thirds of females (four) had only one tattoo, as compared to half of males (two). Ethnicity was not provided by the participants in this study, but based on the researcherʼs notes, eight (80%) of the participants appeared Caucasian, and two appeared African American. 162 When East Meets West on the Skin A total of 19 tattoos were recorded from the ten participants, as shown in the table. Along with the meaning ascribed to the tattoos and the gender of the person reporting the tattoo, the researcherʼs classification of each as tattoo as “traditional,” “New-Age,” or “ambiguous” is shown. Table of Classifications of Recorded Tattoos Tattoo Rose Rose Japanese symbol Greek letters and crown Hello Kitty emblem Klingon-like symbol Double thumbed fist of Gonzo journalism Splitface symbol from Hedwig and The Angry Inch Dragonʼs eye Chinese symbol Crown of thorns and “King of Kings” Tribal art Skull Celtic-inspired knot Female symbol (Venus) Virgo symbol (astrological) Shooting star Heart with star in center Heart inside a “Godsmack” symbol (star-burst type pattern) Meaning Reminder of loved one/beauty Individuality/beauty Faith Creativity/majesty/confidence “Something random I did at that time and place in my life” Looks good/ “Donʼt mess with me”/ “What fool” “Push life to the extreme” “Separation we all face. The eternal quest to find your ʻother halfʼ” “My other side, the other me looking out” Courage/ importance of courage Religious Family/ brotherhood/“a link between me and some friends” “A part of me that is dead/gone” Commitment Feminine sexuality “I am Virgo in all aspects” “First tattoo/represents sorority symbol” Special connection/love and hope Aesthetic/“Bonding experience … between best friends” Gender Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Coding Traditional Traditional New-Age Ambiguous Traditional New-Age Traditional Traditional Ambiguous New-Age Traditional New-Age Traditional New-Age Ambiguous Ambiguous Traditional Traditional Traditional “Traditional” Symbology “Traditional” symbols accounted for 53% (10 of 19) of the tattoos recorded. The majority of these (55%) belonged to females. This pattern reflects the fact that more females participated than males. That “traditional” tattoos are still the majority is consistent with the literature, which states that “New-Age” symbology is growing but not yet the most popular style (DeMello, 1995, 2000). 163 The University of Alabama McNair Journal Roses, Hearts, and Stars made up five (26%) of the nineteen tattoos gathered and half of the 10 traditional designs recorded. Consistent with remarks made by two of the tattoo artists, all belonged to females. One elaborate rose pattern dated back to the 1920s, according to its owner. The two hearts were incorporated into larger tattoos; that is, the hearts were one aspect of the tattoo, but in both cases they were the largest and most obvious image. One example incorporated a heart and a star together. No examples of “pentagram” type stars were recorded. Religious Imagery was reported once, by a male participant. It consisted of a crown of thorns and the phrase “King of Kings.” An obviously Christian image, it was the only example of its kind recorded in this study. Skulls were also recorded only once. A single skull was reported by a participant who reported another four tattoos on his body. This example is significant since it, like the roses and flowers of females, coincides with the statements made by one of the tattoo artists, who referred to skulls and skeletal designs as “scary” and as popular styles among males. Other examples included a corporate emblem (Hello Kitty), as well as popular literature or music imagery. These included the emblem of Gonzo journalism, a major outlet for news and opinions, and the emblem of “Hedwig and the Angry Inch,” a popular music group. “New-Age” Symbology “New-Age” symbols made up 26% (5 of 19) of the tattoos collected. The same number of males and females had “New-Age” tattoos. These could be classified easily due to their styles. The participants all reported philosophical and personal meanings for their “New-Age” tattoos. In comparison, many, though not all, “traditional” tattoos had very little in the way of philosophical meaning. Tribal patterns consist of abstract lines and spirals, and the term is used by artists to refer to this African-inspired style (according to one artist). One example of a tribal pattern was reported by a tattooed person. The participant reported that this particular style symbolized “family and brotherhood.” Because tribal patterns have grown to the point of being a distinct style rather than a limited “language,” it is difficult to determine whether or not this image had an original meaning, and if so, what that meaning was. This problem is made more difficult since the tattoo was not 164 When East Meets West on the Skin visible to the researcher. Nevertheless, the participant reported a special link with his friends via this tattoo. Languages reported by participants included one example each of Japanese and Chinese. (An example of Greek was also recorded, but will be discussed later.) Since scripts state their meaning clearly, all participants retained that meaning. For example, if a person wishes to have his or her tattoo translate as “faith,” he or she would choose a character or set of characters that means “faith”. Celtic symbology occurred once among students and was reported by a piercing artist at a tattoo shop. The example reported by the student seemed to be inspired by Celtic designs, though it is difficult to determine whether or not a particular symbol was used by that particular ancient culture. The literature suggests that Celtic symbols are becoming more popular, and it should be noted that an example of Celtic styles was found in this small sample (Underwood, 1991). Ambiguous Examples The remaining 21% (4 of 19) of recorded tattoos were not readily classifiable as “New-Age” or “Traditional.” Two males and one female had tattoos in this category. One tattoo, the “dragonʼs eye,” was truly difficult to classify. Although animals are a traditional subject of tattoos, dragons are common in the context of Asian-styled “New-Age” tattoos (Hong, 2003); this led to classifying the dragonʼs eye as an ambiguous tattoo. Other examples included two astrological symbols. While astrology is an important part of some “New-Age” movements, it has long been a part of American popular culture; many newspapers contain astrology sections. It is common for some parts of a “New-Age” tradition, though not all of course, to fall out of practice for some time and later be resurrected. Thus, it is difficult to classify astrological symbols as “New-Age” or “Traditional.” Astrological signs and their use in divination are both components of neo-pagan traditions such as Wicca (Pike, 2004). The use of Greek, as mentioned earlier, is another instance of a tattoo given the ambiguous classification. While the use of non-English characters by English speakers is a common attribute of “New-Age” tattoos, Greek and Latin seem to be exceptions. These languages are both strongly tied to Western civilization through religious and academic portals. Both were, at one time, considered “elite” languages, and both are also historically associated with Christianity, as well as the fraternities and sororities on campus. Their use, therefore, is difficult to classify. 165 The University of Alabama McNair Journal Tattoo Artistsʼ Observations Common tattoos and styles. The tattoo artists reported that they had been tattooing professionally for five, ten, and twelve years, respectively. One artist noted that he had been in the tattooing business for ten years, but had been tattooing professionally for only five years. Two of the three artists noted specifically that butterflies are a common tattoo style asked for by women. These same two artists also noted the rising popularity of portraits, that is, life-like representations of individuals much like traditional portrait paintings. One artist attributed this to the advances in tattoo machine technology, as well as the continued experimentation with ink mixing and styles by artists. This same artist gave the only statement in reference to popular tattoos among males: “guys like scary stuff, Indian stuff, animals, etc.” It is not clear whether “Indian” refers to Native Americans or Indians. This same artist stated that she specialized in cover-ups and performed “a lot of cover-ups for ugly tattoos and names.” One artist noted that he was often asked to draw scripts. This seems to coincide with the “New-Age” preference for texts of various origins. One artist noted tribal patterns to be increasingly common not only among tattoos but also among vehicle decals and equated their popularity to a “fad”. This same artist noted the synthetic nature of tattoos in America, something that is explored below. Shifts in tattooing. One artist noted the ubiquitous problem of pricing. He stated that “price bickering and overall lack of information seems to be the status quo.” The most significant shift in tattooing according to one artist is the synthetic nature of American tattooing. This refers to the incorporation of “traditional” styles with “New-Age” imagery, resulting in a unique style. This artist gave two examples. One was of an Egyptian deity, Anubis, which the artist drew in an American comic book style. The subject matter could be classified as “New-Age” or, at least, ancient and not what one might expect to find in America; the artistic style applied was distinctly American and gave the funerary deity a superhero look. Another example involved Chinese lettering presented in a graffiti style. Both of these suggest a true fusion of American popular culture and the symbology associated with it, along with the various styles and artistic forms that have been introduced to America over the years. 166 When East Meets West on the Skin Conclusions The result of the various shifts in tattooing mentioned above is a unique artistic form. That which was old is now new again, while that which is new is being combined with the old in very different and interesting ways. The incorporation of Japanese and Celtic imagery along with the inspired styles of Africa and India have all led to the tattoos that Americans are exposed to today. “New-Age” symbols are still only one of many artistic styles in American tattooing. While this research does confirm their popularity (as does the literature), they are, nevertheless, but one part in the long tradition of tattooing in America. It seems that when someone chooses a “New-Age” symbol, he or she is often choosing it because of what it purportedly meant in the culture it originated from. Therefore, the transition of symbols is not only a process of artistic immigration, but also one of meaning, ideologies, and perhaps even religions. A personʼs religious background could easily have an effect on the imagery he or she chooses. If a European were to convert to Hinduism, then Sanskrit would become the traditional language of his or her religion. Could the use of Sanskrit in a tattoo thus be considered “New-Age” if its context is traditional? The same would apply to the millions of followers of Islam for whom Arabic is not their native language. This is something to consider as oneʼs religious convictions are rarely visible. A person with many East Asian tattoos, such as Buddhist mandalas or various deities or demons, may not have any ideological connection to that culture. He or she may simply like its artistic styles. Tattoos are one form of decoration, but that decoration may have multiple interpretations. One interesting finding which should be noted is the meanings attached to tattoos in males versus females. Within this study, two males noted what could be interpreted as psychological significance. The example of the skull that was recorded represented, according to its owner, a “part of me that is dead/gone.” This would suggest something more than just the aesthetic value of the tattoo being important. The symbol itself had a meaning beyond the superficial image. The same participant had a dragonʼs eye tattoo and noted it as representing “my other side.” Again, this seems to be more than just a nice-looking piece of art. While some females did note more abstract meanings (such as bonding, love, and hope) others noted common reasons such as individuality, beauty, and even “something random I did at that time and place in my life.” These are, of course, no less important than other reasons, but it seems interesting to note the differences in meaning after one artist noted the stark difference she sees between what males and females choose. 167 The University of Alabama McNair Journal Tattoo images have stories associated with them. They are truly biographical pieces. Even those which are, according to their owners, valued solely for their aesthetic qualities can say something about the person. They speak for the artistic tastes of the individual as well as marking a time in that personʼs life. Even if getting a tattoo is a spur-of-the-moment decision for some people, and the tattoo they choose has purely aesthetic value to them, it still marks a moment when that person said “I want to do something different.” Tattoos, it seems, are as much about personality and style as they are about aesthetics and meaning. Limitations This study was limited in a variety of ways. First, time limitations and conducting the study during the summer affected the number of possible participants. Secondly, the nature of this research further limited the data pool, since not all students have tattoos. Other methodologies, including setting up a table on the universityʼs quad during the day where passers-by could be informed about the study and participate if they so chose, were attempted earlier in the summer without success. Due to these issues, as well as others, a total of only ten participants from the University of Alabama campus were recruited from the eight classes solicited. Time constraints, as well as the issues of travel and artist cooperation, limited the total number of artist participants to three. The results of this research represent but a tiny fraction of the student population of the University and the artist population of Alabama. Therefore, this study is preliminary and is open to further expansion on campus as well as off. Future Study This study can be expanded upon in a number of ways. First, a larger pool of participants may be obtained from The University of Alabama. Conducting this research during the fall or spring semesters would yield a much larger data pool. Secondly, a cross-analysis involving other universities may yield a more diverse sample from across Alabama, while contacting other tattoo artists across the state would also add to this study. Perhaps if it were combined with other studies at a later time, this research project could facilitate a greater understanding of tattoo art in the Southeast United States, an area often overlooked. Comparison of results with similar studies in California or New York, and even globally, may yield a better insight into modern tattooing. 168 When East Meets West on the Skin Reference List Atkinson, M. (2004). Tattooing and civilizing processes: Body modification and self control. Canadian Review of Sociology & Anthropology, 41(2), 125-47. Bell, S. (1999). Tattooed: A participant observerʼs exploration of meaning. Journal of American Culture, 22 (2), 53-58. Bowker, J.(Ed.). (1997). New-Age. The Oxford dictionary of world religions (693). New York: Oxford University Press. DeMello, M. (1995). Not just for bikers anymore: Popular representations of American tattooing. Journal of Popular Culture, 29 (3), 37-53. DeMello, M. (2000). Bodies of inscription. London: Duke University Press. Hong, J. (2003, January 12). Tattoos: A userʼs guide. New university. Retrieved April12, 2005, from http://horus.vcsa.uci.edu/article. php?id=658 Nyberg, A. (2005). Modern primitives and body modification. Retrieved July 10, 2005, from www.sterneck.net/cybertribe/ritual/nybergmodprim/index.php Pike, S. (2004). New age and neo-pagan religions in America. New York: Columbia University Press. Sanders, C. (1989). Customizing the body: The art and culture of tattooing. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Scarre, C. (2001). The Iceman: Shepherd or shaman? In B. Fagan (Ed.), The seventy great mysteries of the ancient world (pp. 132-135). London: Thames and Hudson. Steward, S. (1990). Bad boys and tough tattoos: A social history of the tattoo with gangs, sailors, and street-corner punks 1950-1965. New York: The Haworth Press. Underwood, N. (1991). Designs on the body. Macleanʼs, 104 (36), 42. Wisner, H. (2004). Are tattoos taboo? Dance Magazine, 78 (11), 52. 169 The University of Alabama McNair Journal Appendix A Questionnaire for the Tattooed Person Use the back of this sheet if necessary. Age_______ Gender____________ Briefly describe your tattoo(s). Why did you choose this (these) design(s)? What does your tattoo(s) mean to you? Appendix B Questionnaire for the Tattoo Artist Use the back of this sheet if necessary. How long have you been a tattoo artist? What are some of the more common tattoo designs that you have been asked to draw? Have you noticed any changes in what types of tattoos customers have asked for since you first became an artist? If so what type of change? Finally, what do tattoos mean to you, and why do you think people get tattoos? 170