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DIRECTIONS
JANUARY 2010
Chief Executive’s Overview
Cars and Trains – What We Have in Common
Technology at the Hub of Road Safety
keys2drive – Take Control
Roof Strength and Occupant Protection in
Rollover Crashes
Australian Automobile Association Editor
Incorporated in the ACT Allan Yates
ABN: 25 008 526 369 Communications Manager
Australian Automobile Association
GPO Box 1555
Canberra ACT 2601 Design
Meta Design, Canberra
Tel: 61 2 6247 7311 www.metadesignstudio.com.au
Fax: 61 2 6257 5320
Email: aaa@aaa.asn.au
Website: www.aaa.asn.au The views expressed in Motoring Directions
are not necessarily those of the AAA
Contents
Chief Executive’s Overview 2
Mike Harris
Cars and Trains – What We Have in Common 4
Ray Grigg
Technology at the Hub of Road Safety 9
Greg Smith
keys2drive – Take Control 12
Karen Smith
Roof Strength and Occupant Protection in 20
Rollover Crashes
Michael Paine/Craig Newland
Australian Automobile Association 1
Chief Executive’s Overview
Facing the Challenges
of 2010
Welcome to a New Year, and to hit the ground running • The Federal Government late last year named its National
we present the AAA’s technical publication, Motoring Road Safety Council, which includes AAA President Freda
Directions. AAA and constituent motoring clubs had a Crucitti, with a brief to advise the Australian Transport
busy year in 2009 and it doesn’t look like slowing down Council on development of the next 10-year National Road
at all in 2010. Safety Strategy from 2011 to 2020; and
AAA and the clubs have been working hard in rolling out road • Our Parliamentary visits program will ramp up in this election
safety programs and advocacy activities on behalf of our 6.5 year.
million members and all road users, and already 2010 shapes
Alongside these activities, AAA will be launching the global road
up as another big year in the area of road safety.
safety campaign, Make Roads Safe, which was unanimously
endorsed at the Global Road Safety summit in Moscow last
In terms of activity:
November, and now awaiting sign off from the United Nations.
• Our national learner driver program, keys2drive, continues The campaign proposes a Decade of Action for Road Safety,
its roll out across Australian states and territories; aimed at bringing the global road toll down from more than 1.3
million deaths a year.
• The Australian Road Assessment Program (AusRAP), was
the subject of a pilot project in Queensland late last year And then there is the Federal election scheduled for some time
looking at synergies with the International Road Assessment in 2010…
Program (iRAP);
There will be no shortage of activity from AAA and the clubs,
• The Australasian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP) that’s for sure.
continues to set the bar in terms of safety, with an increasing
This issue of Motoring Directions contains a number of articles
number of Australian-made and imported vehicles now
which will be of interest to the road safety community and
proudly displaying a five star safety rating;
stakeholders.
• AAA and the clubs continue to work on AAA’s Climate
AAA Vice-President, Ray Grigg, presented a major address at
Change policy, On the Road to Greener Motoring;
the AusRAIL Plus Conference held in Adelaide in November, on
• AAA and the clubs are working to develop an older driver the links between road and rail transport in ensuring an efficient,
program to meet the needs of the ageing Australian complementary freight and passenger land transport system
population, particularly in ensuring mobility for older drivers around the country.
and club members;
The address – which laid out a range of common aims and
activities in areas such as boom gates and ensuring proper
access to rail freight hubs and interchanges – was well received.
2 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
There is also an article on the technology underpinning the
Australian Road Assessment Program (AusRAP), which looks at
the technology and methodology behind this innovative, global
road rating program, analysing road sections and awarding a
star rating for safety.
keys2drive program director, Karen Smith, presented a paper
to the 2009 Australasian Road Safety, Research, Policing and
Education Conference in Sydney in November, outlining progress
to date and the guiding principles underpinning the program.
At the same conference, ANCAP Technical Manager, Michael
Paine, delivered a paper on vehicle rollover testing being
conducted in the United States and its applicability to Australian
vehicles and road environment.
There is certainly no shortage of content to keep you informed
and aware of AAA program activities over January. On behalf
of AAA and its staff, we welcome you to a very busy 2010 and
look forward to another year of achievement as Australia’s peak
motoring body and constituents.
Happy reading….
Mike Harris
Chief Executive
Australian Automobile Association
Australian Automobile Association 3
Cars and Trains – What We Have in Common
Ray Grigg I note the recent Australian Transport Council meeting, where
Vice-President the Federal and State Transport Ministers agreed to adopt a new
Railway Level Crossing Strategy from 2010 to 2020.
Australian Automobile Association
Following is edited text of an address to the AusRAIL Plus This strategy will improve standards and legislation affecting
Conference in Adelaide last November, delivered by the AAA level crossings, and will retain a focus on practical measures
Vice-President, Ray Grigg, on the link between road and rail such as warning devices, camera-based enforcement and
transport. nationally consistent speed reductions on approach.
Australia is a large country with a diverse population, based The initiative will complement the National Road Safety Strategy
around the coastline and in major regional centres. The need 2010 to 2020 and will better align road and rail safety. This is
to ensure integrated, efficient and affordable transport modes welcome news – with around 100 accidents at rail crossings
for moving people and importantly freight around the country is across Australia every year, this is an issue that needs to be
unquestioned. addressed.
While air and sea transport are important, it is our land transport The Federal Government, as part of its Economic Stimulus
links that are the nation’s arteries – carrying the overwhelming Plan announced in February this year, provided $50 million in
majority of freight and conveying millions of Australians every 2008-09 and $100 million in 2009-10 to speed up installation
day in their family, professional and social lives. of boom gates and other safety measures at high-risk crossings.
Many of our constituent clubs have also advocated to State
The Australian Automobile Association and its Constituent Governments the need to have an active program to abolish
motoring clubs – on behalf of our 6.5 million motoring members at-grade rail level crossings to improve safety and reduce road
– recognise the vital importance of ensuring a properly congestion.
integrated road and rail network.
BITRE Paper
That importance – of getting our land transport right in
Australia’s economic and social interests – has been recognised The Commonwealth’s Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and
by State and Federal Governments, with increasing Budget Regional Economics recently issued a paper comparing rail and
funding to road and rail transport and massive Commonwealth road freight modalities and asking the question: “Where and
outlays on infrastructure projects both prior to and in the midst how do road and rail freight compete with or complement each
of the global economic crisis. other?”
AAA and the Clubs stand alongside the rail industry in Australia’s domestic freight task measured 521 billion tonne
advocating and lobbying for improved transport infrastructure – kilometres – that’s the tonnage moved per kilometre – in 2007.
indeed in many cases the clubs see themselves as partners with Of this task, 35 per cent was carried by road, 40 per cent by rail
the rail industry in delivering the massive freight and passenger and 25 per cent by coastal shipping.
tasks through our road and rail networks. The domestic freight task has doubled in size over the past 20
We need to ensure that freight and public transport carriers years, and is forecast to grow by approximately 3 per cent per
and networks have the capacity to deliver for all Australians and year between 2005 and 2030 – with rail growing by 3.2 per
Australian businesses. cent per annum and road 3.1 per cent.
Alongside this, AAA and I am sure the rail industry has a The Bureau notes that both road and rail modes have attributes
common interest in ensuring rail crossings in urban and that render them more suitable for different freight tasks.
regional areas are safe for users of both transport modes. We While there is some competition between the two modes, they
have advocated strongly on the need to upgrade crossings at a also complement one another, particularly in the delivery of
number of rail crash inquiries. intermodal freight services in cities.
4 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
The report finds that, while road and rail are competitors for this Infrastructure Australia and the Building Australia Fund.
gigantic freight task, there is little “substitutability” between the
rail and road modes. Rail takes the bulk of long-haul freight and As far as we understand, none of the rail funding is allocated to
road takes most of short-haul and urban freight task. urban public transport, but to projects related to rail freight on
inter-capital corridors and some links to ports.
The Bureau’s report concludes, and I quote:
While such investment might have limited benefit to motorists
“In many freight markets, there is little direct competition through shifting freight from road to rail, there is clearly
between road and rail – typically one mode is significantly more scope for the Federal Government to substantially increase
efficient and effective and consequently has a majority market its investment in rail and other forms of public transport in
share. urban centres as a means of reducing congestion, improving
environmental outcomes and increasing the efficiency of the
“Domestic economic activity and world commodity demand will overall transport network.
largely drive future growth in aggregate road and rail freight.
Nonetheless, the efficient and effective movement of Australia’s In this context, however, we would expect Government
freight task will continue to involve a mix of transport services.” investment to be based on clear economic benefit-cost criteria
and allocated to infrastructure development rather than to
The report acknowledges the shipper’s choice of freight mode is meeting operational costs.
influenced by the relative importance of cost and service quality
and, importantly, the door-to-door service rather than the line- AAA also believes that it is necessary for the Federal
haul component of the task, particularly in the big markets. Government to invest in public transport infrastructure as a way
of improving mobility and reducing congestion and travel times.
This, therefore, tends to leave road and rail freight providers as
partners as much as competitors. AAA would therefore like to see the Federal Government fund
urban public transport projects and for funding to be identified in
One of the objectives of AAA is to represent, safeguard and this year’s Budget.
protect the interests of our members and, indeed, all Australian
motorists. Public Transport
While our members have joined motoring clubs, AAA’s ongoing The need for investment in public transport is consistent with
research shows they have clearly expressed the view that they AAA’s request in its 2009-10 Budget submission for;
are looking for improvements in transport overall, including
dealing with road congestion and the need for better public • a longer term commitment, with a 15-20 year time horizon
transport. to increase investment in the network;
• a detailed examination of the interconnectivity of road, rail
Infrastructure Investment and public transport, to reduce congestion in the cities; and
• to upgrade the national highway network to a 4-star rating
Investment in both road and public transport infrastructure and across the entire network.
services is not only desirable, but essential, if improvements
are to be made to mobility, accessibility (including for the Last year we stated that Infrastructure Australia could be tasked
disadvantaged), the environment and the overall efficiency of the with this reform agenda and it would appear that this is a likely
transport network. outcome when projects identified for funding are announced.
The Commonwealth Government committed $8.5 billion in The avoidable cost of congestion in Australian capital cities
Budget expenditure for 2009-10 on the development of road, totalled $9.4 billion in 2005 and public transport has a role to
rail and port infrastructure around Australia. play in reducing this enormous cost to the community.
This included expenditure of $4.7 billion for road transport. The There is thus a huge imbalance between funding for roads and
Federal Budget announced the former Auslink road funding funding for public transport, including rail.
program has been renamed the Nation Building Program
and complements other Commonwealth programs such as
Australian Automobile Association 5
AAA believes that there is a role for the Commonwealth Apart from a desire for a greater investment in roads, AAA and
Government in public transport, and that the predominant the Clubs are again standing alongside the rail sector in strongly
measure by which it could facilitate improvement in public advocating at the State and Federal level for properly planned
passenger transport services and infrastructure is through and integrated transport and freight systems.
funding specific public transport projects.
As noted in the Infrastructure Australia report to COAG in
AAA therefore, is pleased to see the Government’s recent December 2008, there are a number of avenues for improving
commitment to public transport through its Infrastructure the use of existing infrastructure. This includes open access
Australia project list and its commitment to increasing transport to infrastructure, efficient pricing, technology, and reform of
capacity in our cities and making better use of transport transport operating costs.
infrastructure.
The Report also identifies a number of areas for addressing
Just how much of a role and what specific improvements need climate change, including transport infrastructure, where it states:
to be made in public transport infrastructure and services is a
question that is better answered by our Constituent Clubs, given “It is clear that governments at all levels, including the Australian
that State Governments have the principal responsibility for Government, need to provide much greater investment in
public transport. new public transport infrastructure, in order to expand current
transport systems and ensure that existing infrastructure and
In addition, the types of services – such as buses, trains, ferries, public transport is utilised effectively and more efficiently to
taxis – vary from State to State. mitigate effects on climate change”.
Infrastructure Proposals for Prioritisation
Brisbane Inner City Rail Capacity Upgrade Brisbane QLD $14b
CBD Metro Sydney NSW $4.8b
Extension of Passenger Rail Services to Seaford Adelaide SA $456m
Geelong Growth Package Geelong VIC $94.6m
Gold Coast Rapid Transport Gold Coast QLD $850m
Urban Rail / Bus or Urban Rail / Road
Light Rail for the ACT Canberra ACT $2.95b
Melton Duplication and Electrification to Bacchus Marsh Melbourne VIC $NA
Northbridge rail cutting link Perth WA $263m
Regional Rail Express Line Melbourne VIC $3.8b
East-West rail Tunnel Melbourne VIC $3.5b
Southern Cross Platform 15 & 16 Activation Melbourne VIC $155m
West Metro Sydney NSW $8.1b
Gawler Rail line re-sleepering and electrification (formerly Adelaide SA $2.19b
Adelaide’s Future Public Transport Network)
North-South Corridor – Darlington Transport Project Adelaide SA $750m
Eastern Busway (Stage 2) Brisbane QLD $680m
Eastern Busway (Stage 3) Brisbane QLD $140m
Darra to Ipswich Transport Corridor Brisbane/Ipswich QLD $3.8b
Very Fast Train (VFT) VIC/ACT/NSW ACT $32-59b
Source: Infrastructure Australia – A Report to Australian Governments, 2008
6 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
The Report also identifies a number of public transport initiatives Under AusRAP, we have videoed and assessed more than
for further analysis. These projects are shown in the slide. 25,000 kilometres of the Australian national highway network
– the old AusLink – and awarded star ratings for the network’s
The total cost of these projects amounts to between $65 and safety.
$92 billion. The
This included rating of the road sections around railway
magnitude of the capital cost of the various projects demands crossings as well.
the involvement of the Commonwealth Government.
The AusLink network represents less than 3 per cent of the total
Projects identified for further analysis are located in Brisbane, road network in Australia – yet it carries some 15 per cent of the
Sydney, Adelaide, nation’s road traffic and experienced 1,210 road crash deaths,
or 14 per cent of all road deaths, in Australia between 2000 and
Geelong, the Gold Coast, Canberra, Perth, Melbourne and
2004.
Ipswich. A Very Fast
Under the AusRAP ratings, some 58 per cent of the national
Train (VFT) for Victoria, NSW and ACT has also been put forward
highway is rated 3 stars or less. AAA and the motoring clubs
for prioritisation, with an estimated capital cost ranging from
consider this figure to be unacceptable in the interests of the
$32 to $59 billion.
Australian community and business – regionally, nationally and
Many of our Constituent Clubs made submissions to internationally.
Infrastructure Australia.
AusRAP Star Rating of the National Highway Network
Australian Automobile Association 7
Snapshot of the AusLink National Network, 2007
State Length (km) ** *** **** Divided Good alignment Safe roadside Intersections
NSW 4637 8% 68% 24% 43% 96% 22% 1 every 3km
VIC 2303 4% 52% 44% 58% 95% 31% 1 every 3km
QLD 5206 1% 59% 40% 13% 99% 63% 1 every 4km
SA 2721 2% 63% 35% 14% 99% 51% 1 every 4km
WA 4874 3% 42% 55% 4% 91% 63% 1 every 7km
TAS 473 0% 75% 25% 37% 100% 43% 1 every 3km
NT 2738 0% 37% 63% 3% 100% 63% 1 every 9km
ACT 17 0% 16% 84% 100% 12% 44% 1 every 2km
Total 22969 3% 55% 42% 21% 96% 50% 1 every 4 km
Source: AAA AusRAP Research
A particularly notable feature of the above table is the fact that • The Commonwealth’s Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and
just half of the AusLink National Network is classed as having Regional Economics Report looking at road and rail freight
safe roadsides. Making road infrastructure safe is often the most networks points out the complementary nature of road and
cost effective means of saving lives. rail as partners, not competitors.
• We share a common interest in making rail crossings safer
AusRAP has also recently begun assessing the applicability of for all.
the Star Rating model to pre-construction road designs. • It is important to provide increased and necessary funding
for improved public transport.
Although these studies are not yet complete, it appears that
• We have outlined what the motoring clubs – on behalf of
the Star Ratings have been useful in identifying potential safety
their 6.5 million plus members – are seeking in terms of
issues, above and beyond those identified in the normal road
infrastructure, land and public transport.
safety audit undertaken by road agencies.
• And we have given you a snapshot of some of the products
In summary, the Australian Automobile Association and its that AAA and the Clubs utilize in their advocacy and
constituent motoring clubs believe we are partners with the members’ interests.
rail sector in developing and maintaining a dynamic national
We advocate strongly with governments and stakeholders for the
transport network that accommodates the needs of the
necessary resources and funding to ensure this national network
Australian community.
does fulfill those expectations, and the Australian Automobile
• We recognise the importance of a properly integrated road Association is happy to work with the rail industry to meet these
and rail network. expectations.
• We stand alongside the rail industry in advocating for
improved transport infrastructure.
8 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
Technology at the Hub of Road Safety
Greg Smith,
Regional Director, Asia Pacific
International Road Assessment Program (iRAP)
With five people killed in road crashes on Australian roads every
day and a further 70 admitted to hospital with serious injuries,
there is no doubt that safer roads are needed. The Australian
Road Assessment Program (AusRAP) highlights sections of road
where improvements could be made to reduce the likelihood of
crashes – and to make those that do happen, survivable.
Throughout its development and application to thousands
of kilometres of roads, AusRAP has relied on technological
improvements to harness the enormous body of evidence on ‘Video’ data of the road network has been collected by the ARRB
safe road infrastructure and improve the efficiency and reliability Group Hawkeye vehicle
of the network-level analysis.
Most crashes are caused by human error. For this reason, road The data is collected using specially equipped vehicles that
safety initiatives have traditionally focussed on fixing the driver in record digital photographs, or images, of a road (generally at 5m
order to prevent crashes. Approaches typically involve education, to 10m intervals) using an array of cameras aligned to pick up
testing and enforcement. However, to err is human; psychology various views of the road (forward, rear, side-left and side-right).
tells us that people will always make mistakes. The vehicles are able to drive along the road at almost normal
speed while collecting this information.
More recently, engineers have focussed on mediating the
outcome of a crash by designing safe vehicles and safe roads. The digital images are “streamed” together to form a “video” of
It is possible to protect the road user in the event of a crash by the road network. Analysts then undertake desk-top inspections
designing vehicles and roads to work together to ensure crash by taking a virtual drive-through of the road network, at
energies do not overwhelm vehicle occupants and road users. highway speed or on a frame-by-frame basis, depending on
For vulnerable road users, the road design must work even the complexity of the road. The software used by the analysts
harder to ensure they are not exposed to high-speed traffic. enables accurate measurements to be made of elements such
as lane widths, shoulder widths and distance between the road
In countries leading in road safety, where great progress has edge and fixed hazards, such as trees or poles.
already been made on driver behaviour and vehicle safety,
national safety strategies show investment in safer infrastructure Using these inspections, a Road Protection Score (RPS) is
is expected to deliver substantial casualty savings. calculated for each section of road. These scores, which build on
work undertaken by the European Road Assessment Program
Innovative road infrastructure assessment (EuroRAP) and draw extensively on the research conducted by
Austroads and ARRB Group in the development of the Road
AusRAP Star Ratings are based on a detailed visual inspection of Safety Risk Manager, then underpin the Star Ratings.
a road’s design elements. AusRAP uses an innovative approach
to undertake these inspections by obtaining State and Territory To date, more than 30,000km of National and State highways
road authorities’ “video” data of road networks, which is usually have been assessed by AusRAP.
collected for asset management purposes.
Australian Automobile Association 9
Delayed investment will cost more
AusRAP Star Ratings were integral to a recent independent
review of more than 4,500km of South Australia’s strategic
highway network.
The RAA’s South Australia report, Towards 2020, details the
improvements required to achieve a higher standard of safety
and efficiency on the State’s regional and urban road network.
The RAA makes a case for investing early, saying: “The
undeniable fact is that the longer investment is delayed, the
more expensive it will be to deliver.”
Towards 2020 specifies a number of road safety enhancements
for the network, including removing power poles from urban
roadsides, increasing shoulder widths, installing safety barriers
and building overtaking lanes.
Drawing on the AusRAP results, RAA points out that locations
previously identified for their poor safety have benefited from
targeted investment in recent years. On the Sturt Highway for
example, where lane and shoulder widths were increased, the
number of deaths dropped from 31 in 2000-04 to 14
in 2003-07.
Investment saves lives
The RACV has used AusRAP Star Ratings to demonstrate the
life-saving impact that road upgrades can have. By producing
AusRAP rating teams undertake a virtual ‘drive-through’ of the Star Ratings for the Calder Highway before and after its upgrade,
network, measuring key road infrastructure features RACV showed that its road safety star rating improved from just
two-stars to four-stars.
The Nasty Nine The upgrades involved duplication of the existing single-
In Queensland, the RACQ has published Star Ratings for more carriageway road, which has the effect of dramatically reducing
than 8,000km of highways. Of the 2,700km of State controlled the risk of head on crashes occurring, and substantially
highways assessed, 17% rated two stars, 82% rated three stars improving roadsides, which strongly influence the risk of injury in
and just 0.4% rated four stars. There were no one-star (highest a run-off road crash.
risk) or five-star (lowest risk) roads. This compares with 1% two
AusRAP research has shown that this type of improvement can
stars, 59% three stars and 40% four stars for the 5,200 km
have a dramatic effect on crash costs. By correlating actual
network of Queensland’s national road network.
crash data with Star Ratings, it found that on average, improving
By combining the Star Rating results with historic crash data a road’s Star Rating from two stars to three stars halves crash
available in the State Government’s online database, RACQ costs. Similarly, improving from three stars to four stars halves
was able to identify nine key sections of road where there is the crash costs again.
both a demonstrated history of road trauma, and where the
infrastructure-based Star Ratings were poor. According to the The iRAP Road Safety Toolkit
RACQ, “These sections of road are compelling candidates in Through its affiliation with the umbrella organisation, the
need of urgent repairs and improvements.” International Road Assessment Program (iRAP), AusRAP also
supports the promotion of safer roads in developing countries,
where 9 out 10 of the world’s 1.3 million roads deaths occur
each year.
10 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
In partnership with the Global Transport Knowledge Partnership As well as information about cost, treatment life, and effectiveness
(GTKP), iRAP developed the Road Safety Toolkit (www.irap.org/ of the countermeasures, the Toolkit also canvasses issues to
toolkit) to deliver comprehensive and easy-to-use road safety consider when implementing countermeasures and provides links
information to help practitioners from around the world find the to technical references and manuals and some non-engineering
best and most affordable road safety countermeasures to reduce countermeasures that may be effective.
casualties.
The Toolkit currently attracts around 1,000 visitors a week from
A major strength of the Toolkit is that it is freely available to all on more than 100 countries.
the internet, regardless of whether or not there has been an iRAP
road inspection in a country. It is accessible for low speed internet The Future
connections and is a ‘living document’ that can be updated as
As new technology and research becomes available, iRAP will
the knowledge base improves. Guidance provided by the Toolkit is
continue to evolve. The program is currently undertaking a pilot
particularly relevant to low and middle income countries, focussing
project in Queensland in partnership with the State road authority
on low-cost countermeasures. Users can search by: crash types;
to extend its approach to specifically cater for motorcyclists,
road user types; and treatments to find an approach that might be
pedestrians and bicyclists in both rural and urban settings.
suitable for implementation.
For more information on AusRAP, visit www.ausrap.org.
The iRAP Road Safety Toolkit offers free advice on the life-saving
For more information on iRAP, visit www.irap.org.
potential and cost of road safety countermeasures
Australian Automobile Association 11
keys2drive – Take Control
Karen Smith
Director, keys2drive
Australian Automobile Association
This paper was presented to the 2009 Australasian Road Safety
Research, Policing and Education Conference in Sydney in
November.
Introduction
Throughout its 85-year history, the Australian Automobile
Association has been committed to improving the safety
of motoring. Today, road safety remains a critical issue for
Australians. For meaningful reductions to be made in road
trauma, we need to take a safe systems approach – Safer
drivers in Safer cars on Safer roads. keys2drive is a unique
initiative that is designed to deal with one important aspect of
this road safety recipe – novice driver risk.
keys2drive aims to positively influence young drivers’ behaviour
and their approach to solo driving by using new learning
methods. The program also aims to assist supervising drivers to
be more effective in their driver training role.
keys2drive, is the single largest national learner driver safety
program in Australia’s history. The program has been developed
by the Australian Automobile Association (AAA) and its members;
NRMA, RACV, RACQ, RACWA, RAASA, RACT and AANT. The
Australian Government has committed $17 million over five
years to see keys2drive implemented in every state and territory. keys2drive has three key components:
keys2drive is designed to help improve the safety of novice 1. One free professional lesson by an accredited driving
drivers by fostering the relationship between a learner, their instructor for learner drivers when they are accompanied
supervising driver and their professional driving instructor. by their supervisor (usually dad or mum or a family friend).
During this lesson, information and strategies for managing
We know that learner drivers are the safest drivers on the road, the first stages of solo driving are provided to the learner and
but the moment that they are no longer supervised – when they their supervisor.
begin to drive solo – their risk jumps dramatically for the first six
months. 2. An engaging and sophisticated website, rich in learning
experiences and supporting information.
By using new learning methods, keys2drive sets out to positively
influence young drivers’ behaviour and their approach to solo 3. A voluntary accreditation scheme for driving instructors
driving. The program also aims to improve the quality and wishing to participate in the program. It involves initial
quantity of supervised learning by helping parents/supervising training and ongoing professional development and requires
drivers to be more effective in their driver training role. a commitment to the keys2drive Code of Practice developed
in consultation with the Australian driver training industry.
12 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
keys2drive creates an opportunity for the driving instructor to The driver training system
use the incentive of a free driving lesson to connect with the
Our current driver training system is based on the Graduated
supervisor and engage their help. The free lesson begins the
Driver Licensing (GDL) system.
process of building a sustainable relationship between the
instructor, learner driver and supervisor. The benefit of GDL is that it creates lower risk conditions for
learner drivers [3]. In particular, the extension of the learner
Importantly, it helps the supervising driver have greater
period delays the time at which unsupervised driving starts [4].
confidence, so that they are more likely to spend time in the car
with their learner and provide a quality experience. However, the GDL system does not reduce post-license crash
rates [4] or contribute much to driver road safety; in some cases
Driving instructors play a critical role in the ultimate effectiveness
it may even have a negative effect [5].
of keys2drive. The accreditation scheme is designed to provide
instructors with the knowledge to conduct a keys2drive lesson; In Australia, much store is placed on learner drivers gaining at
to utilise keys2drive learning in additional lessons; to encourage least 120 hours of supervised experience. The concept is based
best practice within the industry; and to actively promote those on Swedish research which demonstrated that a trebling of
instructors who are accredited. supervised experience (from 41 to 118 hours) led to a post-
licence crash reduction in the first year of solo driving of just
To become accredited, instructors need to register online at
over 30% [6].
www.keys2drive.com.au and participate in a one-day training
course, an online coaching and assessment program, and an However, an increase in supervised experience does not
auditing process. necessarily result in a reduced crash risk [7], [3], [8], [9], and
[10].
keys2drive began with a Tasmanian rollout and official website
launch in mid-2009, and is being followed by a staged national Training and testing in hazard perception for learner drivers is
rollout from the second half of 2009. Feedback from the not of much benefit either [11].
Tasmanian rollout has helped with the development of the next
stage of the program in Victoria. The change from L’s to P’s
The case for change Research indicates that to get a reduction in road accidents and
deaths, we need to assist learner drivers to change the way they
Car crashes are the single greatest cause of accidental death of think and behave. The aim is for beginning drivers to engage in
young Australians. lower risk behaviours on the road.
Car crashes represent 31% of all deaths of people aged 15-24 keys2drive aims to bring about a major shift in the way we
years, compared to 1% for people aged 25 years and over [1]. approach teaching beginning drivers. In essence, this shift is
from one of control to one of empowerment.
The issue is not beginning drivers. Beginning drivers are
supervised and have the lowest risk of crashing of all drivers. Graduated Driver Licensing reduces beginning drivers’ risk
mostly by imposing controls. Control over behaviour works
Newly licensed drivers are the ones most likely to be involved
particularly well during the learner phase. Research shows that
in car crashes. The risk is highest during their first year of
very few learners crash while under supervision [12], [8], [2].
unsupervised driving, and particularly in the first six to eight
months. However, immediately learner drivers are free of the controls
imposed by a supervisor or driving instructor, their crash
UK research has estimated that the crash risk in the first year
risk increases significantly. After a year or more on L plates,
of unsupervised driving is at least 20 times higher than in a
once they pass the driving test their driving situation changes
supervised driving environment [2.1]. Swedish research places
dramatically (see Table 1).
this figure even higher, at 33 times greater risk [2.2].
This elevated risk continues for at least another three to five
years [2.3].
Australian Automobile Association 13
Table 1: Comparison of pre and post test environments
Learner phase, pre test Immediately after passing test
Supervised Unsupervised
Directed Undirected
Error corrected Error uncorrected or accepted
Externally paced Self-paced
Atypical adult driving situation Typical adult driving situation
Little adverse influence of significant others Much potential adverse influence of significant others
Immediately after passing their driving test we say to provisional 1. Six months on P plates with zero harm
drivers, ‘You can now find your own way’. This is after years of
As we have seen, the first six months of P plate driving is the
them being told, ‘Do it my way’. The change is huge and one
riskiest period in a driver’s life. keys2drive focuses on a target
most learners are poorly prepared for.
of six months on P plates with zero harm. The aim is to create a
The change in the pre and post test situation is made worse by smooth transition from Ls to Ps and establish a good foundation
newly licensed drivers believing their ability to be greater than for lifelong safe driving.
it actually is. Passing the driving test is seen as a validation
The typical beginning driver’s fixation on ‘passing the test’
of overall driving skill, even though the test does not assess
and getting a driver’s licence influences what they want to
safe solo driving behaviour. This false sense of confidence is
learn, what they are taught, and what they believe about
associated with unrealistic optimism and increased crash risk
their achievements. This would be less of an issue if the test
[13], [14], and [15].
assessed the learner’s ability to drive safely on their own, but
it does not. The outcome is a mechanical test which does not
keys2drive: two key changes
assess some of the most important skills needed to drive safely
keys2drive proposes two key changes to the GDL system: unsupervised [15].
1. Changing the target of learning to drive from the driving test Much changes when beginning drivers, supervisors, and driving
to six months on P plates with zero harm. instructors focus on a learning target six months beyond the
driving test. In this case the learner driver can be compared
2. Encouraging supervisors and driving instructors to empower to a sports person preparing for the finals rather than the first
rather than control their learner drivers. game of the season. Players (or learner drivers) have to pace
themselves, have quality training experiences, get as close to the
This approach is consistent with the European Union HERMES real thing as possible, and learn endurance skills (mostly mental
Project (2007-2010) that “builds on a number of different EU skills).
projects in the driver training field which recognise the need for:
The sports person who thinks that they are ready for the
less reliance on short term instructional methods which tend finals just because they won their first game has grossly
to help learners to pass the driving test, and more focus on underestimated the task that lies ahead. Similarly the six-month
active-learning methods to prepare learners for solo driving and target gives beginning drivers a much more accurate and
to foster ongoing learning after the test realistic benchmark.
more focus on the higher levels of the Goals for Driver Education
matrix in driver training.” These include personality factors, self
awareness, emotions, different trip-related contexts for novice
drivers and their motives for driving. [16]
14 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
2. Empowering learner drivers The ability to find your own way and end up at a good
destination is mostly a mental skill. Psychologists use a term
‘The voyage of discovery is not in seeking new landscapes but in
called ‘metacognition’. ‘Meta’ is the Greek word for ‘above’. The
having new eyes’ (Marcel Proust).
task is to help learner drivers learn to mange themselves ‘from
In the keys2drive approach, the message to the learner driver above’, as if through the eyes of an external observer.
is ‘Find your own way’. This may sound like a risky message to
Metacognition is the awareness of one’s thought processes and
send but, if we accept that P plate drivers do eventually have to
the efficient use of this self-awareness to self-regulate behaviour
find their own way, then it makes sense that they learn the skills
[23], [24], and [25]. Simply speaking it’s thinking about one’s
to do this beforehand.
thinking.
Typically, driving instructors and supervisors tell their learners
In keys2drive learner drivers are taught how to convert the
what they believe they need to know and do: ‘I know best, do it
advice of the three kinds of skilled outside helpers—the trained
my way’. Understandably, they want to feel in control but often
assessor, the driving instructor, and the supervisor—into inside
this leads to them being controlling—the opposite of helping
thoughts. It is useful to deal with these three roles separately.
someone find their own way.
In this case, where we want learner drivers to internalise the
Find your own way to six months on Ps with zero harm is different kinds of advice that these three types of people would
a target that forces participants to see their roles through provide, we will call them ‘meta roles’.
new eyes. Beginning drivers must learn to self manage their
Table 2 summarises the three meta roles (based on the
behaviour rather than relying on others. Supervisors and driving
viewpoints of the trained assessor, the driving instructor, and the
instructors must learn to model self-management behaviours
supervisor) and the research areas that align to them.
and adopt a supportive coaching role rather than a ‘telling’ role.
The teaching of self-management skills in order to improve
driving behaviour is the dominant theme in current research
[17], [18], [19], [5], [20], [21], [10], [22].
Table 2: The three meta roles in learner driving
Meta role Leaner driver use Research area
Self assess You know exactly how you compare to a safe driver and Accurate self-assessment is required to prevent
take note when you are not driving that way. errors of judgement. An accurate benchmark
provides for accurate error recognition.
Self instruct You fix weaknesses in your driving with little or no Novices make errors. Feedback and learning
outside help. tactics reduce errors.
The need for drivers to internalise error and learn
from experience.
Self supervise You recognise risky P plate situations, notice how they The importance of self-regulation and
make you feel, and choose to take control. management of motives.
Australian Automobile Association 15
Putting it all together Table 3 shows the three learning dimensions that comprise the
whole keys2drive learning journey.
In keys2drive learning, metacognition is also described as
‘deep’ learning. While the emphasis is on deep learning, ‘long’ In keys2drive the long, wide, and deep learning journey is a
and ‘wide’ learning also contribute in important ways towards feature of the learning environment.
preparation for safe solo driving.
Table 3: Dimensions of the learning journey
Dimension Learner driver use Research area
Long learning You do a lot of driving and eventually basic driving Repetition, repetition…
skills are reliable and automatic. Robust habits.
Skill automaticity.
Wide learning You do a lot of different driving and frequently have Storehouse of wide or different
experiences that are new and hard. You learn ways to experiences.
recognise and prepare for new situations. Capacity to handle novelty.
Deep learning You do a lot of thinking about the different driving Self-management and self-regulation.
experiences you have and discover much about Metacognition.
yourself, your driving, and how others affect you.
The keys2drive learning environment It also highlights that safe driving is more than just knowing how
to drive a car – it’s about learning how to manage yourself in
The aim of keys2drive is to provide a range of learning
different P Plate situations. Learner drivers are then invited to
experiences that produce significantly lower risk driving
become part of the solution – by becoming their own instructor,
behaviours. These learning experiences are introduced via
assessor and supervisor.
the free lesson, in which a “Road Map” forms the basis of the
lesson plan and via the games and other learning content on the On the back of the “Road Map” the journey unfolds further into
interactive website, www.keys2drive.com.au. what ‘useful practice’ is in very simple terms. There is also a
section where the learner driver, supervisor and the driving
The “Road Map” document is given to learner drivers and their
instructor agree to work together, from ‘pre-learner’ stage to ‘got
supervisors when they have their free lesson. The Free Lesson
your P’s’ stage, to ‘make the first six months of solo driving safe’
is directed primarily at the parent or supervising driver. Research
stage.
has shown that parents can make a real difference in reducing
crash rates of novice drivers [26]. However we know some The online learning environment (www.keys2drive.com.au)
parents may not fully appreciate the risks novice drivers face supports pre-learners, learner drivers, novice drivers, supervising
[27]. During the free lesson, an accredited driving instructor drivers and driving instructors on the journey of behavioural
uses the keys2drive “Road Map” to explain what it means for a change. The keys2drive program is mainly web based with the
beginning driver to find their own way through a long, wide, and majority of the intervention material, interactive learning activities
deep learning journey. This also involves a practical teaching and games accessed through the website. All administrative
demonstration. tasks and most information are also delivered via the web. This
includes a large part of the driver instructor accreditation process.
The front of the “Road Map” initially builds an awareness of the
existing road safety issue for younger drivers by using facts.
16 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
The website has themed content areas including: 1. Coaches and Driving Instructors
• Cars: Car safety; buying and selling a car; insurance; Coaches
maintenance and assistance
• Licensing: State and Territory specific information The role of the keys2drive coach is to pass on the learning
• About the keys2drive program methodology to the driving instructor to enable a structured and
• The keys2drive learning approach replicable approach to the delivery of keys2drive lessons to the
• Accredited driving instructor’s Code of Practice learner driver and supervisor.
• Dedicated sections for beginning drivers, supervisors and
To be selected as a keys2drive accredited coach, applicants
instructors, including learning materials
were expected to be:
• How to apply for a free lesson with an accredited instructor
• Online games – Game technology is used to attract users to • experienced trainers holding a Certificate IV in Driving
the website and subtly engage them in deep learning Instruction and preferably Certificate IV in Training and
• Explore space Assessment;
• critically reflective thinkers and confident in an intellectually
‘Explore’ is the most innovative learning option. It combines challenging environment;
web 2.0 technologies with innovative content. In this part of the • passionate about teaching and advancing their own learning;
website, beginning drivers participate in a reflective journey via a • skilful in using information technology; and
range of web-based experiences. The experiences simulate life’s • confident and capable drivers with experience in the driving
complex journey – they may not make sense to us at the time nor instruction industry.
have an immediately obvious structure, logic, or sequence. Over
time these lived experiences merge and generate new meaning, An initial 12 applicants for the coaching role were selected
particularly when reflected upon and shared with others. Some covering all Australian capital cities. They attended a one week
life experiences are more likely to promote safe behaviours than intensive training program in February 2009. Prior to this
others. ‘Explore’ attempts to accelerate young people’s exposure training they were required to complete an assignment on the
to, and engagement with, these types of experiences. underpinning philosophies and background of the keys2drive
program. As part of their development, the coaches attended
Feedback on the introduction of the keys2drive the keys2drive Instructor accreditation training in March 2009
in Tasmania and assisted in the curriculum review sessions.
Program in Tasmania Some of these coaches were also involved in presenting the first
Development of the keys2drive program began in 2008 with round of instructor accreditation training in Victoria in July 2009
the emphasis on building a solid applied research basis to in preparation for the national rollout on the mainland. Additional
underpin the program. In doing this, AAA was mindful of coaches are being trained at present.
ensuring the foundations of the program were sound and
explored opportunities to enhance the program with the use of Driving Instructors
complementary research and initiatives.
To become an accredited keys2drive instructor, applicants
The keys2drive program was introduced in Tasmania. The Hon need to:
Anthony Albanese MP, Minister for Infrastructure, Transport, • hold a Certificate IV in Driving Instruction (by end of 2009);
Regional Development and Local Government formally launched • abide by a keys2drive accreditation Code of Practice;
the Tasmanian rollout of the program on 2 July 2009 at • successfully complete a one-day training course and a five-
Newstead College in Launceston. step self-coaching program;
• participate in ongoing professional self-development; and
The following paragraphs provide some feedback on the
• utilise a safe car for instruction (minimum 4 Star ANCAP
introduction of the keys2drive program in Tasmania.
safety rating by end 2010).
Australian Automobile Association 17
From 36 driving instructors who attended training in Tasmania Feedback on the keys2drive “Road Map” has also been positive.
in March 2009, 20 are active accredited keys2drive instructors The “Road Map” forms the basis of the lesson plan for the free
throughout Tasmania. In addition to a one-day training course, lesson and has been designed to cater equally well for all of the
the instructors were required to complete five self reflection five beginner driver stages (pre-learner, just got my Ls, had my
tasks. The accreditation process was effective in identifying the Ls for a while, about to go for my Ps, just got my Ps). keys2drive
most professional instructors. accredited Driving Instructors in Tasmania indicated that they
see it as an essential tool for conducting the keys2drive lesson.
2. Website development and usage
AAA is passionate about helping to foster the critical relationship
www.keys2drive.com.au between learner drivers, their supervising drivers and
Results for the website need to be considered in the context professional driving instructors. We look forward to making
of the time the website has been accessible through Google – keys2drive the benchmark training program not just in Australia,
since 1 July 2009. Prior to this, the website was only accessible but around the world.
to people who had the address. Therefore, prior to 27 June
(when the address was published in newspaper advertisements
in Tasmania) the data gathered does not reflect the general user.
Between 25 May and 8 August 2009 Google Analytics recorded
the following website statistics:
• 5,318 visits;
• 52,216 page views;
• 9.82 pages per visit;
• 23.66% bounce rate; and
• an average of 9 minutes 24 seconds on the site.
Although consultation occurred during this period with driving
instructors in Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland, the
main public promotion for keys2drive occurred in Tasmania.
Despite the limited publicity, monthly statistics indicate that
the website is successfully drawing users. Website visits are
increasing by approx 15% per week. IT industry experts expect
a bounce rate of 50-70% so a bounce rate of 20+% indicates
that visitors are being drawn to the site.
3. keys2drive Lessons
From end July 2009, AAA undertook a targeted campaign in
Tasmania to promote the program with advertisements in the
“youth sections” of the three major newspapers and by a direct
mail out to all high schools. As a result, at 21 August 2009 the
number of learner drivers registered to take a free lesson had
risen to 157 – an increase of 27% in less than a month.
Lesson feedback has been positive. Respondents indicated that
their knowledge had significantly increased as a result of the
free lesson. Both supervisors and learners indicated that their
knowledge about the risks learners face when they go solo had
considerably increased.
18 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
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confidence: the effect of age and the impact of random breath testing,
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Effectiveness of Systems and Individual Components. Report No. 209,
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2.2 Gregersen, Nyberg & Berg (in press), cited in Senserric & Whelan, p 32 category B driver training, pp. 4, 29. Available from www.gutefahrt.at/
2.3 VicRoads, 2002, cited in Senserric & Whelan, p 32 hermes
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18. van Gelder, T., 2001. How to Improve Critical Thinking Using Educational
4. Preusser D.F., Tison J., 2007. GDL then and now, Journal of Safety Technology. University of Melbourne. p. 1. Available from www.
Research. 38, pp.159–163. philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/reason/
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Programs of the Future. Report No 03/03, Royal Automobile Club of vehicle to personal self-control: broadening the perspectives to driver
Victoria. Melbourne, p. 37 education. Transport Research Part F 5, pp. 201-215
6. Gregersen N.P., Hans-Yngve Berg, Inger Engström, Sixten Nolén, Anders 20. Bailey, T. 2003. Novice Driver Self-Monitoring. Conference proceedings.
Nyberg, Per-Arne Rimmo, 2002. Sixteen years age limit for learner Developing Safer Drivers and Riders. Australian College of Road Safety,
drivers in Sweden - an evaluation of safety effects. Accident Analysis and Brisbane, p. 130.
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21. Keating D.P., 2007. Understanding adolescent development: Implications
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Rationale, evidence of effects, and potential for enhancing graduated
driver licensing effectiveness. Journal of Safety Research. 38, pp.193– 22. STAYSAFE, 2008. Report on young driver safety and education
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Road Safety. Report no. 1/54.
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commentary on the contributions to the special issue. Applied Cognitive
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Medicine. American Journal of Preventative Medicine. 35 (3S), pp. 253-
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333–340.
Australian Automobile Association 19
Roof Strength and Occupant Protection in Rollover Crashes
Michael Paine, ANCAP Technical Manager, ANCAP An enhanced roof crush test is being introduced by National
Craig Newland, Technical Director, AAA Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in the USA [5].
This is the current FMVSS 216 test, followed by a similar load
Following is a paper presented to the 2009 Australasian Road applied to the roof on the previously untested roof pillar on the
Safety Research, Policing and Education Conference in Sydney other side of the vehicle. The minimum SWR required in FMVSS
in November 216 will increase from 1.5 to 3.0 for light vehicles (gross mass
under 2,700kg). Phase-in begins in September 2012, and all
Introduction vehicles must comply by September 2016.
A fundamental principle of protecting vehicle occupants in
crashes is to minimise the deformation of the passenger
compartment. This principle should also apply to rollover crashes
but the issue has been clouded by opposing arguments in
litigation cases – mostly in the USA.
The US government introduced a regulation for static roof
strength in 1973 and recently reviewed the regulation. In its
submission to the review, the Insurance Institute for Highway
Safety found a correlation between static roof strength and risk
of occupant injury in a rollover crash for compact sports utility
vehicles (SUVs). Further research on passenger cars convinced
IIHS that a consumer rating based on a static roof strength test
was worthwhile, at least as an interim measure while a suitable
Figure 1. FMVSS 216 roof crush testing by IIHS
dynamic test was developed. The IIHS method rates vehicles by
strength-to-weight ratio as measured in the regulation test, with
a value of four needed for a good rating. Some road safety advocates in the USA have proposed that a
dynamic rollover test be introduced such as the Jordan Rollover
This paper sets out the results of a review of the IIHS rating System (JRS) [6, 7, 8]. This test involves spinning the car about
method and its applicability to Australia. an approximately longitudinal axis and dropping it so that a
corner of the roof contacts the ground (simulated by a moving
Around a quarter of Australian light vehicle occupant fatalities
platform).
occur in crashes involving rollover. These crashes tend to be
more severe than most other types of crashes [1, 2]. There has been considerable debate in the USA and elsewhere
about the usefulness of the JRS for determining occupant
One factor associated with the risk of injury in a rollover crash
protection. This appears to be partly because JRS test results
is roof strength [3]. Although there is no Australian Design Rule
have been used in litigation cases. It is likely to be several years
for roof strength, it is likely that all cars marketed in Australia
before a dynamic test is available that is suitable for either
would meet the requirements of US Federal Motor Vehicle Safety
regulatory or consumer rating purposes.
Standard 216 (FMVSS 216). Henderson et al. [4] found that
there was little point introducing an ADR based on FMVSS 216 – In 2008 the US-based Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
mainly because most cars already complied with the FMVSS. provided detailed comment on NHTSA’s proposed changes
to FMVSS 216 [9]. IIHS made the following comments about
FMVSS 216 was introduced in 1973 and required the front
dynamic rollover tests:
corner of the roof to withstand a quasi static force equal to
at least 1.5 times the weight of the vehicle, up to 127mm of
deflection. This is known as a strength-to-weigh ratio (SWR) of
1.5. Figure 1 shows an FMVSS 216 test rig.
20 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
Hu [11], in a retrospective study of USA crashes, concluded
“Age, the number of quarter-turns, rollover initiation type,
maximum lateral deformation adjacent to the occupant, A-pillar
and B-pillar deformation are significant predictors of head-face-
neck injury odds for belted occupants...”
Strashny [12] conducted a statistical analysis of NASS data for
NHTSA and concluded that “the relationship between injury
severity and [intrusion or headroom] was statistically significant”.
This analysis was based on data from 24 car models.
IIHS conducted static roof crush tests of several SUV style
vehicles and compared the results with real-world crash data
on the risk of serious injury in a rollover crash. IIHS found good
Figure 2. Jordan rollover system (from Friedman [5])
correlation between SWR and risk of injury:
“A dynamic rollover test using instrumented test dummies would “IIHS’s study [of compact sports utility vehicles] clearly shows
be a gold standard for assessing occupant protection in rollover the relationship between increased roof strength and reduced
crashes. However, we are not certain that the procedures injury risk in rollover crashes. We support the continued use of
for dynamic test are reasonably repeatable, and we are not the current roof crush procedures set forth in the existing federal
sure how to conduct such a test to obtain the most relevant standard on roof crush resistance. However, our study supports
information. Real-world rollover crashes vary widely. They often requiring vehicles to have a strength-to-weight ratio of at least
are preceded by violent events as vehicles leave the road and 3.0. We estimate that a 1-unit increase in peak strength-to-
begin to roll over. The positions of occupants at the time a weight ratio — for example, from 1.5 times vehicle weight,
rollover begins are uncertain, so it is difficult to position test as specified in the existing federal standard, to 2.5 times, as
dummies to represent where occupants would be in real-world proposed by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
rollover crashes. Current dummies designed for front, side, and — would reduce the risk of serious or fatal injury in a rollover
rear testing have not been shown to behave in a human-like crash by 28 percent. Increasing roof strength requirements
manner in rollover crashes.” beyond 2.5 times vehicle weight would reduce injury risk even
further.” [13]
Roof strength and injury risk
More recent IIHS research with cars found similar results, with
The concept of a strong passenger compartment is not new an estimated 22% reduction in the risk of incapacitating or fatal
[10]: driver injury for a one-unit improvement in SWR [3].
“... The iconic Pininfarina and Ferrari companies then combined Possible NCAP rating based on roof crush
to build a race safety concept car, the Sigma Grand Prix. Based
on a 1967 Ferrari F1, it was first shown in 1969 and brought resistance
into the real world several ground-breaking concepts that have IIHS research over the past 12 months included measurement of
since formed the basis of nearly all race vehicle design and rule- the SWR for numerous vehicle models [3]. This identified a wide
making, including: range in performance for vehicles in similar categories. In March
2009 IIHS published the first results of its new roof strength
• Comprehensive built-in fire protection rating system. This simply assigns a rating of Good (SWR greater
• Six-point harness restraint system than 4.0), Acceptable (SWR greater than 3.25 and up to 4.0),
• Head and neck restraint system Marginal (SWR greater than 2.5 and up to 3.25) or Poor (SWR
• Driver’s safety cell and rollover protection, with surrounding less than 2.5), depending on the SWR, as illustrated in Figure 3.
collapsible structures to front, rear and side
• Crash data recording ...”
Australian Automobile Association 21
Figure 3. IIHS Rating System of Strength-to-Weight Ratio
Roof strength-to-weight ratio
5.00
Vehicle A rated good since
4.50 peak force is over 4 times
GOOD the vehicle weight
4.00
ACCEPTABLE
3.50
3.00
MARGINAL
2.50
POOR
2.00
Vehicle B rated poor since
1.50 peak force less than 2.5 times
the vehicle weight
1.00
0.50
1” 2” 3” 4” 5”
Plate displacement
NHTSA [5] reports the results of static roof-crush tests for a wide
range of vehicles. Figure 4, derived from the published NHTSA and
IIHS data (IIHS website), shows the Strength-to-Weight Ratio (SWR)
plotted against unladen mass. Also shown on the graph is the IIHS
rating system, with a “good” rating for an SWR of 4 or more. The
X-axis is set at the current FMVSS 216 SWR requirement of 1.5.
From Figure 4, it is evident that there is a large spread of SWR for
vehicles in the same class and size. This suggests that vehicles of
any type can be designed to have a high SWR (Figure 5).
Consumer information programs such as New Car Assessment
Programs (NCAPs) could provide comparative information to
consumers regarding the roof strength of different vehicle models.
Figure 5. Snapshot from IIHS video comparing roof crush of
In addition to a rating based on SWR, there may be an opportunity Volkswagen Tiguan and Kia Sportage
for NCAPs to encourage inflatable side curtains and seat belt
pre-tensioners that are deployed in a rollover event. These should
also be required to protect outboard rear-seat occupants (eg pre-
tensioners and curtains for rear outboard seats). For example, there
could be a “gold” rating that is an SWR of 4 or more plus suitable
curtains and pre-tensioners. In these cases manufacturers may
need to supply evidence of the deployment of this equipment in a
rollover event.
22 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
Figure 4. Strength-to-weight ratio for a range of USA vehicle models
Australian Automobile Association 23
Conclusions References
Occupant injury in rollover crashes is a substantial road safety 1. Grzebieta R.H., Young D., McIntosh A., Bambach M., Fréchède B., Tan G.,
problem in Australia. Roof strength has been shown to be an Achilles T., ‘Rollover Crashworthiness: the final frontier for vehicle passive
safety’, Proc. Australasian Road Safety Research Policing and Education
important indicator of injury risk in USA crash studies. Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 2007.
Based on the IIHS initiative, a consumer rating system for 2. Richardson S., ‘Rollover: One Of The Road Safety Problems That Is
occupant protection in rollover crashes is feasible and could be Not Being Addressed’, Australasian College of Road Safety Yearbook,
based on the current single static roof crush test of FMVSS 216. Australia, 2003.
3. Brumblelow M., Teoh E., ‘Roof Strength and injury risk in rollover crashes
There has been considerable debate in the USA about proposed
of passenger cars and SUVs’, 21st International Conference on the
changes to FMVSS 216. There are no signs of the introduction of Enhanced Safety of Vehicles, Stuttgart, 2009.
roof strength regulations outside North America.
4. Henderson M. & Paine M., ‘Passenger Car Roof Crush Strength
An NCAP rating system can side-step this debate because it Requirements’, Department of Transport & Regional Services, Report CR
would not be compulsory for all vehicles to meet minimum 176, Canberra, 1998.
requirements – the rating system simply spreads the field and 5. NHTSA, ‘Supplemental notice of proposed rulemaking FMVSS 216, 49
leaves it to consumers to decide whether to buy vehicles that CFR Part 571’, Docket No. NHTSA-2008-0015, RIN 2127-AG51, 2008.
perform well.
6. Friedman, D., Nash, C. and Bish, J., ‘Observations from repeatable
dynamic rollover tests’, IJCrash, 2007, 12(1).
7. Berg, A., ‘Rollover Crashes - Real World Studies, Tests and Safety
Systems’, 18th International Conference on the Enhanced Safety of
Vehicles, Nagoya, 2003.
8. Richardson S., Grzebieta R., and Rechnitzer G., ‘Proposal for a Dynamic
Rollover Protective System Test’, Proceedings ICRASH2002, 3rd
International Crashworthiness Conference, SAE Australia, Melbourne,
February 2002.
9. Brumbelow M., Teoh E., Zuby D., and McCartt A, ‘Roof Strength and
Injury Risk in Rollover Crashes’, IIHS, March 2008.
10. Australian Institute for Motor Sport Safety, ‘Australian Institute for Motor
Sport Safety’, introductory brochure, 2007.
11. Hu J., Chou C., Yang K. and King A, ‘A weighted logistic regression
analysis for predicting the odds of head/face and neck injury during
rollover crashes’, 51st AAAM, Melbourne, October 2007.
12. Strashny A., ‘The Role of Vertical Roof Intrusion and Post-Crash
Headroom in Predicting Roof Contact Injuries to the Head, Neck, or Face
During FMVSS No.216 Rollovers; An Updated Analysis’, DOT HS 810
847, October 2007.
13. Oesch, S., ‘Statement before the US Senate Committee on Commerce,
Science and Transportation - IIHS research on vehicle roof crush’,
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, June 4, 2008
24 MOTORING DIRECTIONS JANUARY 2010
