Psychopathology soclecture

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS Andrzej Kokoszka Development – definition: Development is understood as an appropriately directed change resulting from assimilation of new data and accommodation of cognitive, emotional, and psychomotoric patterns which, in their entirety are connected with the actualization of potential abilities and maturity of neurophysiological and psychological structures. Development – definition: • While introducing the concept of development, it is impossible not to assume a norm characterizing its proper direction. In the case presented, conception is delimited by order of appearance of psychological structures and functions. It should be stressed that the notion of development is used only in a descriptive sense. Development as a value, considered in a normative sense is disputable as an ideology. Conceptual Approach to Consciousness The presented approach refers to Jaspers's (1963) view which suggests that the term "consciousness" implies: 1. Awareness of experience. 2. Awareness of an object. 3. Self-reflection. Conceptual Approach to Consciousness • For the reason that the notion of consciousness is often reduced to only one or two of these dimensions, it is possible to integrate different views and data on consciousness describing it in components. Therefore, in this context, Jasper's threefold definition is divided still further with consciousness being differentiated from mind and psyche. • There are very few studies on the relationship between mind and consciousness. These concepts are often used interchangeably. However, it is possible to create a comprehensive rationale for the study of consciousness, accepting the terminological order presented below. Psyche Psyche is the widest notion denoting mental life as the activity of the central nervous system. Though the psyche seems to be an indivisible whole, scientific thinking (according to contemporary paradigm) is analytical, so traditional divisions into psychomotoric (behavioral, executive), cognitive (intellectual), and emotional spheres still seem to be useful. Mind • Mind denotes this part or domain of the psyche, i.e., mental life, which may be conscious. Mind means mental activity which is non-conscious, according to the description of consciousness presented below. Consciousness Consciousness is understood as an elementary experience, so it is impossible to refer it to something more fundamental. We can describe it only in a tautological way as an experience ("a feeling", an "intuition") accompanying psychic phenomena (Bilikiewicz, 1979). Consciousness This was named sensorium in traditional psychiatry (Bilikiewicz, 1979). Hamilton, (according to Lalande, 1983) in his first Lecture on Metaphysics explained that "consciousness cannot be defined: we may be ourselves fully aware what consciousness is, but we cannot without confusion convey to others a definition of what we ourselves clearly apprehend. The reason is plain: consciousness lies at the root of all knowledge". Consciousness The accepted understanding of consciousness corresponds with phenomena described by Jaspers as "awareness of experience and as such is distinct from loss of consciousness and from what is extra-conscious" (Jaspers, 1963, p. 9). More, concisely, consciousness can be defined as an "intuition" of one's own state of mind experiencing. Or as a subjective awareness of some aspects of ongoing mental (psychical) processes. Consciousness • Consciousness as an elementary phenomenon may be illustrated by states of derealization and depersonalization. This means change in the experiencing of reality and of one's identity, respectively. • During these states consciousness, "an intuition" of experiencing psychic phenomena that accompany them or "awareness of experiencing", is more clear than usual, i.e., one "feels", or is conscious of changes in feeling reality, before one starts a rational recognition of this state. In everyday life this intuition is so natural that it is not distinguished from other processes of psychic life. Awareness Awareness means the behavioral, observable aspect of consciousness, i.e., responding to surroundings. Observing another human being I can recognize that one is aware (i.e., probably conscious), but the experience of being conscious, I experience directly, without need of recognition of my own psychic state (i.e., without self-consciousness, as defined below), or Jaspers's self-reflection. Awareness Behaviorism sometimes considers just awareness when applying the notion of consciousness, which is defined as, e.g., "the state of being responsive, or the state of brain's activity at such a time" (Hebb, 1966, p. 286). SELF CONSCIOUSNESS • • • • Self-consciousness, self-unconsciousness, act of self-consciousness and conscious experience. SELF CONSCIOUSNESS Self-consciousness is defined as an ability of recognizing one's own psychological states (Podsiad & Wieckowski, 1983). Originally the notion of conscious and unconscious were used in psychoanalysis; however, in truth they mean consciousness and unconsciousness respectively SELF CONSCIOUSNESS The psychoanalytical terms: conscious, preconscious, unconscious are distinguished according to the ability for recognition of one's psychical states, therefore they may be understood as referring to self-consciousness, selfpreconsciousness, self-unconsciousness. SELF CONSCIOUSNESS Self-unconsciousness in psychoanalysis differs from other views by accepting an existence of psychological phenomena that in an active way, by means of defense mechanisms, do not let some contents to be conscious. SELF CONSCIOUSNESS Self-consciousness is a cognitive phenomenon mediated by other cognitive processes; whereas, consciousness is a specific phenomenon that cannot be reduced to typical cognitive processes. SELF CONSCIOUSNESS The act of self-consciousness, understood as an observation of one's own state of consciousness [i.e., introspection (Podsiad, & Wieckowski, 1983)], is a cognitive phenomenon, characterized by division of ego into the observer and the part of the observed, which is mediated by other cognitive processes. SELF CONSCIOUSNESS Self-consciousness in the narrow meaning denotes self-reflected contents [e.g. reflective self-consciousness according to Zaborowski (1987)]. SELF CONSCIOUSNESS AND ITS ALTERED STATES A state of consciousness is a delineated state of mind, i.e., by both its content and its form - way of experiencing. ALTERED STATES CONSCIOUSNESS “. ALTERED STATES CONSCIOUSNESS Altered states of consciousness were defined as "any mental state(s) of consciousness, induced by various physiological, psychological, or pharmacological maneuvers or agents, which may be recognized subjectively by the individual himself (or by an objective observer of the individual) as representing a sufficient deviation in subjective experience or psychological functioning from certain general norms for that individual during alert waking consciousness. (Ludwig, 1966, p. 225). ALTERED STATES CONSCIOUSNESS This sufficient deviation may be represented by greater preoccupation than usual with internal sensations or mental processes, changed in formal characteristics of thought, and impairment of reality testing to various degree" (Ludwig, 1966, p. 225). ALTERED STATES CONSCIOUSNESS • The following variables play a major role in the production of these ASC. 1. Reduction of exteroceptive stimulation and/or motor activity, e.g., isolation, solitary confinement (in the sea, in the air, on the desert), sleep and related phenomena, experimental sensory deprivation states, etc. 2. Increase of exteroceptive stimulation and/or motor activity and/or emotion, e.g., brainwashing, shamanistic and prophetic trance states during tribal ceremonies, etc. 3. Increased alertness or mental involvement, e.g., in reading, writing, problem solving, prolonged watching of a metronome or stroboscope. . • • • ALTERED STATES CONSCIOUSNESS • 4. Decreased alertness or relaxation of critical faculties - passive states of mind", e.g., mystical, transcendental or revelatory states, aesthetic or self-hypnotic experiences, daydreaming, free associative states during psychoanalytic therapy, etc. • 5. Presence of somatopsychological factors, e.g., hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, hyperventilation, sleep deprivation, intoxication, traumatic brain changes, pharmacological agents, etc. ALTERED STATES CONSCIOUSNESS Characteristics of the states: • 1. Alterations in thinking. • 2. Disturbed time sense, • 3. Loss of control. • 4. Change in emotional expression. • 5. Body image change. ALTERED STATES CONSCIOUSNESS Ccharacteristics of the states: • 6. Perceptual distortions. • 7. Change in meaning or significance. • 8. Sense of ineffable. • 9. Feelings of rejuvenation. • 10. Hypersuggestibility.. SELF CONSCIOUSNESS AND ITS ALTERED STATES “Currently, the notion of altered states of consciousness [ASC(s)] is used in psychology in rather general terms. It denotes states in which the content, the form or the quality of experiences is significantly different from ordinary states of consciousness, and it depicts states which are not symptoms of any mental disorders” (Kokoszka, 2000a, p. 122). However, due to the lack of a commonly accepted view on ordinary states of consciousness, this definition remains imprecise. Self Self is understood as one's own mental representation, including body as well as psychical experience. Object Object is understood as a set of tendencies for a subjective perception and experiencing of other people that was shaped in personal experiences with the important persons in the individual development. Altered states of consciousness • The first investigations of this kind were conducted by the Society for Psychical Research of London in 1894 (Sidgwick, Johnson, Myers, and others). In a questionnaire survey of 17,000 subjects, 9.8 percent admitted having experienced at least one hallucination episode. • In the replication of this research, 14.3 percent out of 1519 subjects experienced hallucinations (West, 1948). McKellar (1968) discovered the appearance of hallucinations in 125 out of 500 subjects. • Mott, Small and Anderson (1965) while interviewing 50 healthy people found auditory hallucination in 32 percent of them. Altered states of consciousness • Posey and Losch (1983-84) presented data indicating the occurrence of auditory hallucination of the voice type among 71 percent of 375 normal college students. The most frequent: • was hearing one's thoughts as spoken aloud 39 percent • hearing a voice call one's name aloud when alone - 36 percent Altered states of consciousness In Bentall and Slade's (1985) investigations conducted among students, • 15.4 percent had an experience of hearing a human voice and then found out that nobody was present, • 17.6 percent often heard a voice saying loudly what they thought. In a random sample of 100 English students, 65 percent recounted that they once had the experience of "being aware or influenced by a presence or a power, whether you call it God or not, which is different from your everyday self". • In 23 percent of cases it was an awareness of the power controlling and guiding the person, • in 22 percent an awareness of God's presence. Altered states of consciousness The experiences occurred most often in the situation of: being alone or in silence - 35 percent, severe distress or decision making - 34 percent, close contact with nature - 26 percent, being with close or trusted person - 21 percent (Hay, 1979). Altered states of consciousness In the investigations of a representative population, in a sample of 1865 persons in Great Britain, Hay and Morisy (1978) found that: • 34.6 percent of subjects answered the quoted question positively, • the percentage was higher among women, older people, better educated, those from higher social classes, and persons in a good frame of mind. Table 3.11 Percentages of subjects who reported experiences of altered states of consciousness (at least once). EXPERIENCES Groups Schizoph renics % 100%=50 Controls % 100%=50 Sig. of difference (U Mann Whitney Test) FACTOR – HARMONY WITH THE UNIVERSE A feeling of total love for all living creatures A feeling of divinely inspired power that inspires others 86.0 84.0 74.0 76.0 0.14 0.32 A feeling of unity with “everything” 68.0 68.0 1.00 A feeling of “direct experience of the essence” A discovery of a new value/beauty of familiar matter or object 74.0 98.0 78.0 96.0 0.64 0.56 Being sunk in pleasant, positive feelings of happiness, peace and joy An experiences of a guidance of an “internal voice” 90.0 98.0 0.09 74.0 82.0 0.34 A feeling of devotion to God 80.0 70.0 0.25 Table 3.11 Percentages of subjects who reported experiences of altered states of consciousness (at least once). EXPERIENCES Groups Schizoph renics % 100%=50 Controls % 100%=50 Sig. of difference (U Mann Whitney Test) FACTOR – UNUSUAL REALITY A feeling of leaving one’s body and being able to observe this 22.0 4.0 0.01 A feeling of a contact with ineffable reality Darkness that fills the mind – being sunk in dark abyss Loss of sense of reality An experience which may be communicated only by metaphorical or paradoxical statements 46.0 40.0 74.0 72.0 12.0 10.0 56.0 54.0 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.06 A feeling of loss self-consciousness, while aware A feeling of spacelessness 36.0 38.0 12.0 22.0 0.01 0.08 A feeling of disorder in time 42.0 38.0 0.08 Table 3.11 Percentages of subjects who reported experiences of altered states of consciousness (at least once). EXPERIENCES Groups Schizoph renics % 100%=50 Controls % 100%=50 Sig. of difference (U Mann Whitney Test) FACTOR – MAGICAL INFLUENCE A feeling that external power influences my thinking A feeling that an external power controls my behavior An impression that another ego exists in my personality An impression of hearing of one’s own thoughts A feeling of unusual abilities like telepathy, healing, precognition 64.0 54.0 56.0 68.0 56.0 88.0 58.0 26.0 46.0 48.0 38.0 70.0 0.61 2.65 0.99 2.40 1.79 2.20 0.54 0.01 0.32 0.02 0.07 0.03 A feeling that observed events may have a hidden meaning A feeling of possession by a negative power A feeling of spiritual protector from the “other world” An experiences of mysterious changes in surroundings 68.0 54.0 62.0 46.0 48.0 50.0 2.21 0.60 1.20 0.03 0.55 0.23 THE MODEL OF THE MAIN EVERYDAY STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS • Diurnal, rhythmical changes between state of waking and sleep are obvious and well documented alterations in the state of consciousness. There is also a convicting, well know body of empirical evidence that there are some changes in state of consciousness, that occur cyclically during sleep, that are classified as REM (rapid eye movement) sleep and Non-REM Sleep. THE MODEL OF THE MAIN EVERYDAY STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS • The first one manifests with story-like dreams, whereas the second with rather static experiences usually recognized as a dreamless sleep. However, there are some data indicating that the same biological rhythm – Basic Rest-Activity Cycle (BRAC) is active also during the wakefulness. THE BASIC REST-ACTIVITY CYCLE • The Basic Rest-Activity Cycle (BRAC) hypothe-sis is that the fundamental idea for the creation of the model was formulated by Kleitman (1963, 1982). He suggests the existence of a rhythm that causes not only cyclical, approximately 90-minute changes in imagination activity during sleep (reflected in the commonly known stages of sleep), but also analogous phenomena during wake-fulness. THE BASIC REST-ACTIVITY CYCLE Kleitman (1982) cites about 50 articles supporting his hypothesis including some experimental data supporting it. An approximate 90-minute oscillation was found in: a) activity of the imagination during wakefulness Kripke and Sonnenschein (1978) showed the existence of cyclical (72-120 min) activity of the imagination both in the laboratory and in more natural- settings, b) intensity of visual illusions (Lavie et al, 1975), c) accuracy of motor coordination (Gopher, & Lavie, 1980), d) time of behavioral reactions (Orr et al, 1974), THE BASIC REST-ACTIVITY CYCLE e) quality of task performance (Sterman, 1985), f) cognitive styles (Klein, & Armitage, 1979) g) different records of EEG (Kripke & Sonnenschein, 1978; Geretz & Lavie, 1983; Manseau & Broughton, 1984; Okawa, Matousek, & Petersen, 1984). CONCEPTION OF PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS OF THE BRAC AND METABOLISM OF INFORMATION • It seems obvious that in Western Culture natural rhythmicity, if it exists, is suppressed during wakefulness and that spontaneous states of highly vivid imagination are regar-ded as unusual and abnormal. They thus give rise to fear and hesitancy, which interrupt those stat-es. CONCEPTION OF PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS OF THE BRAC AND METABOLISM OF INFORMATION • If we accept the hypothesis that ultradian rhythmicity of imagination is a biological reality, human culture should accommodate it in some way. • Natural everyday observations show the occurrence of situations in which people experience states of consciousness with spontaneous vivid imagination and a passive state of mind, not only without fear of anxiety, but with a feeling of rest. CONCEPTION OF PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS OF THE BRAC AND METABOLISM OF INFORMATION • Only irrational altered states of con-sciousness cause fear, whereas rationally explained states may be experienced with pleasure and restfulness. Natural Protective Mechanisms of the Metabolism of Information • These mechanisms are characterized, according to the model, by reduction of goal-oriented activi-ty of imagination. This results in a lack of any activity of imagination or in the reorganization of cog-nitive processes into a culturally acceptable form. In case of a shortage of information, the activity of imagination grows. The most spectacular supporting data come from experiments of sensory deprivation. • 1. "Thoughtles-sness" phenomena. This is a specific kind of staring, characterized by cognitive absence, which according to the model presented, may be considered as the intermediate state between the Ordinary Waking States of Consciousness (OWSC) and Differentiated Waking States of Consciousness (DWSC), that is a daily analog of REM sleep, that lasts for a rela-tively short time, and for cultural reasons is stopped when spontaneous imagination activity increases. We may suppose that the rest phase of BRAC reveals itself during this phenomenon and that it promotes some degree of rest. In case of a shortage of information, the activity of imagination grows. The most spectacular supporting data come from experiments of sensory deprivation. • 2. "Physiological manifestations". Rossi (1986) postulates that the rest phase of BRAC has its own manifestation in dif-ferent physiological reaction-like changes of respiratory shift, yawning, hiccup, burn or sounds from the gastrointes-tinal tract, etc., and in addition during some forms of behavior, such as: crossing one's arms or legs, leaning the head or body to one side, wig-gling the neck, legs, eyeblinking, etc. • In the case of an excess of perceived stimuli, the control center becomes disorganized and the perception is finally disturbed, which leads to a phenomena analogous to that caused by lack of information. This can be observed mainly in states of overfatigue. Culturally Protective Mechanisms of the Metabolism of Information A. Application of exogenous agents like alcohol, drugs. That through physiological mechanisms leads to disorganization of information metabolism, goal oriented activities and to limitation of the inflow of stimuli from the external sources. Nicotine and caffeine on the other hand, facilitate occurrence of the "thoughtlessness phenomena", or moreover, passive, vivid states of imagination. Culturally Protective Mechanisms of the Metabolism of Information B. Relaxation practices like meditation, autogenic training, etc. They may be considered as a means of intentional limitation of information inflow. C. Application of endogenous agents by means of physical fatigue can lead to disorganization of information metabolism. The feeling of fatigue gives an explanation to non-logical experiences. Culturally Protective Mechanisms of the Metabolism of Information D. Purposeful overstimulation leads to disorganization of information metabolism and seems to be the most popular way to achieve "r-ationally explained" spontaneous vivid imagination states including reading a newspaper, listening to the radio, watching television, etc. while tired. Some other popular forms of rest may be considered in terms of these mechanisms such as sightseeing, aes-thetic, and sexual experiences. Culturally Protective Mechanisms of the Metabolism of Information E. "Take-a-break" periodicity: some authors (Klei-tman, 1969; Rossi, 1986) suggest that there is ap-proximately a 90minute periodicity in cultural customs of taking breaks for tea, lunch etc. that enables occurrence of rest phase of BRAC phenomena. • All the situations described above have in common sensations with spontaneous vivid imagination activity accompanied by a relatively passive attitude of mind and an inner consent to their irrationality and nonlinear nature by the person experiencing them. The intensity and degree of extraordinariness of experiences in these situations are commonly recognized and culturally accepted. Culturally Protective Mechanisms of the Metabolism of Information • All of them are experienced as form of a rest. The passive state of mind seems to be an essential psychological factor of the rest phase activity states. The protective mechanisms lead to the DWSC. However, we can speculate that the observed data represent a much more complicated psychophysiological phenomena which may mask obvious parameters of DWSC. Culturally Protective Mechanisms of the Metabolism of Information PROTECTIVE MECHANISM • The concept of protective mechanisms has got some empirical confirmation recently (Duchniewska, Kokoszka, 2003). In order to verify it 30 persons (21 women and 9 men) aged between 19-52 (M = 29.1; SD = 10.08) answered specially designed sets of questions three times a day (at noon, at 5 p.m., and before sleep) over 2 consecutive days. All of the examined individuals reported the situations that occurred during a day and that were accompanied by an increase of spontaneous of imagination. Frequency of protective mechanisms of information metabolism occurrence Protective mechanism Frequency in all reports N=573 218 Percent of all reports Purposeful overstimulation 38% Thoughtlessness Tiredness Take-a-breake-periodicity 199 111 20 34% 19.4% 3.5% Physiological manifestations 18 3.2% Intoxication Relaxation 6 1 1% 0.2% Frequency of protective mechanisms of information metabolism occurrence • Its frequency of the protective mechanisms occurrence varied from 6 to 13 times a day (on the first day M = 9.0; SD = 1.5; on the second day M = 8; SD = 1.65). The time span of the situations in which there was a spontaneous increase of activity of imagination wavered from 5 minutes to 3 hours. A considerable majority of them lasted from 5 (68%) to 10 minutes (19%) AN INTEGRATED MODEL OF THE MAIN EVERYDAY STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS • DWSC is a more general notion than the "fourth state of consciousness" (Wallace, Benson, Wilson, 1971) or the "relaxation response" (Benson, 1975); but those studies on meditation allow for a combination of DWSC with the trophotropic reaction (Hess, 1957). These changes seem not to be attributed to the practice of meditation, but simp-ly to rest (Ho-lmes, 1984). AN INTEGRATED MODEL OF THE MAIN EVERYDAY STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS • Medita-tion may be under-stood as a procedure that allows rest for contem-porary people who are used to constant activity and who do not accept any form of natural passivity. This point of view is congruent with the concept of nature's own healing 20-minute period, named the "Ultradian Healing Response", being of the BRAC manifestation (Rossi, 1991). AN INTEGRATED MODEL OF THE MAIN EVERYDAY STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS • In ideal conditions, the change from the state of waking into sleep could occur during the twenty-four-hour rhythm, whereas approximately 90-minutes of the BRAC should produce fluctuation of the OWSC and DWSC during wakefulness and non-REM and REM sleep during a state of sleep. AN INTEGRATED MODEL OF THE MAIN EVERYDAY STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS • The rest-activity operates more regularly during sleep than during the state of waking because the person has no control over the content and form of experiences during sleep and cannot change natural factors. AN INTEGRATED MODEL OF THE MAIN EVERYDAY STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS • Actually, the process described above is extremely complicated. There are three main factors that have an influence on its complexity: a) The environment, and the necessity to conform to its conditions in respect to physiological and psychological needs. AN INTEGRATED MODEL OF THE MAIN EVERYDAY STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS • b) Self-consciousness - or, more precisely, the location of the control center in the area of self-consciousness which spans the range of the central nervous system autonomy and gains independence from physiological conditions. AN INTEGRATED MODEL OF THE MAIN EVERYDAY STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS • c) Originally, a natural tendency for about 90 minute cyclicity of the BRAC manifestations was postu-lated (Kokoszka, 1987-88), but even if the BRAC hypothesis is replaced by a multioscillatory hypothesis, where several rhythms are postulated - the model still seems to be useful. However, masking effects or possible interference of 90 minute cycles with slower cycles (Lavie, 1989) should be taken into consideration.