Causal Factors

Causal Factors 7.26.2006 Causes and Risk Factors Definitions        Etiology is the causal pattern of abnormal behavior Necessary cause - a condition that must exist for a disorder to occur is a necessary cause Sufficient cause – a condition that guarantees the occurrence Contributory cause – A condition that increases the probability of the occurrence Distal causal factors – causal factors that operate relatively early in life but do not show their effects for years Proximal causal factors are causal factors that operate shortly before the occurrence of the symptoms of a disorder Reinforcing contributory cause – a condition that maintains maladaptive behavior Causes and Risk Factors Feedback and Circularity When more than one causal factor is involved, a causal pattern is found  Simple cause and effect sequences are rare in abnormal psychology  Complex systems of feedback produce patterns of interaction and circularity  Causes and Risk Factors Diathesis-Stress Models  Diathesis - A predisposition toward a given disorder   Can derive from biological, psychosocial, and sociocultural causal factors Diathesis may be perceived as the distal necessary or contributory cause Stress is a more proximal undesirable event or situation Stress produces the disorder in someone with the distal necessary or contributory cause  Stress – a response to an adjustment demand   Causes and Risk Factors Diathesis-Stress Models  Diathesis-Stress Models     Multicausal development models Additive model: diathesis and stress together must reach a particular level; can reach this level with only diathesis or stress, but easier if both are present Interactive model: some amount of diathesis and stress required; if both are not present, the disorder will not develop These models emphasize that we must know what is normal development to understand what constitutes abnormal development Causes and Risk Factors Protective Factors    Protective factors – influences that modify a person’s response to environmental stressors, making it less likely that the person will experience the adverse consequences of the stressors Protective factors may lead to resilience (the ability to cope successfully with very difficult circumstances) Examples:      Having at least one parent who is warm and supportive Exposure to moderately stressful experiences that are dealt with successfully Easygoing temperament High self-esteem High intelligence/school achievement Viewpoints Biological  Psychosocial  Sociocultural  Theoretical Perspectives     Psychodynamic Behavioral Cognitive-Behavioral Biological Viewpoint Mental disorders are inherited or caused by some biological process  Mental disorders are viewed as disorders of the:     Central Nervous System (CNS) Autonomic Nervous System Endocrine System Biological Viewpoint Neurotransmitter & Hormonal Influences  Imbalances of Neurotransmitters    May be excessive production and release of the neurotransmitter substances into the synapses Dysfunction may occur in how neurotransmitters are deactivated Maybe a problem with receptors in the postsynaptic neuron  Imbalances of Hormones Biological Viewpoint Genetic Vulnerabilities Abnormalities in the structure or number of chromosomes  Vulnerabilities to mental disorders are almost always caused by multiple genes  Genes affect behavior indirectly: but it is the end product of a process that is influences by the internal and external environment  Genotype vs. Phenotype  Biological Viewpoints Genotype-Environment Interaction  Genotype-Environment Interaction   Occur when a child’s genotype shapes the environmental experience the child has People with different genotypes may be differentially sensitive or susceptible to their environment Passive effect Evocative effect Active effect  Types of Genotype-Environment Interactions    Biological Viewpoints Genetic and Environmental Influences Genetic influences – those that are influenced by genes  Shared environmental influences – those that would affect all children in a family similarly  Nonshared environmental influences – those in which children in the same family differ  Studying genetic and environmental influences      Pedigree or family history method Twin method Adoption method Linkage and association studies Biological Viewpoints Brain Dysfunction and Neural Plasticity  There is considerable neural plasticity of the brain in making changes in organization and function  Respond to pre- and post-natal experiences, stress, diet, drugs, disease, maturation, etc.    Animal studies clearly show that both positive and negative events can lead to changes in the structure and functioning of the brain Recent evidence suggests that unstimulating, deprived environments can cause retarded development in humans Developmental systems approach:   Genetic activity influences neural activity which influences behavior which in turn influences the environment However, these influences are bidirectional Psychosocial Viewpoints Early Deprivation or Trauma  Institutionalization   Many children institutionalized in infancy or early childhood show severe emotional, behavioral, and learning problems and are at risk for disturbed attachment relationships and psychopathology Adoption can lead to significant improvement (the earlier, the better)  Neglect and Abuse in the home      Among infants, gross neglect may be worse than abuse Abused children may be overly aggressive, have communication or language difficulties, and significant impairment in behavioral, emotional, and social functioning May develop conduct disorder, depression, anxiety, etc. Atypical styles of attachment may develop Improvements may be seen when the caregiving environment changes, but for some, these early experiences may never be overcome Psychosocial Viewpoints Inadequate Parenting Styles   Parent-child relationships are always bidirectional Parental psychopathology    Parents suffering from schizophrenia, depression, antisocial PD, and alcoholism tend to have children at heightened risk for a variety of developmental difficulties Effects do not seem to be due simply to genetic variables Protective factors can buffer these effects: warm/nurturing relationship with an adult, high intellect, social/academic competence, etc. Styles of parenting vary in warmth and control Authoritative parenting Authoritarian parenting Permissive-indulgent parenting Neglectful-uninvolved parenting Restrictiveness can actually protect children growing  Parenting Styles: Warmth and Control       Psychosocial Viewpoints Marital Discord/Divorce  Marital Discord   When marital discord is longstanding, it may lead to frustrating, hurtful, and generally damaging effects on both adults and kids Effects may be buffered if one parent is warm and prone to praise/approval, or if the child has supportive peers Long-lasting modest negative effects documented Effects of divorce are often more favorable than the effects of remaining in a home with marital discord Children living with stepparents – especially very young children – are at increased risk for physical abuse  Divorced Families    Psychosocial Viewpoints Maladaptive Peer Relationships  Despite negative attitudes against bullying…   Most children do nothing to discourage bullying 20-30% of children actually encourage the bully Popular children tend to be either prosocial or antisocial Rejected children tend to be either too aggressive or too withdrawn  Popularity vs. Rejection   Sociocultural Viewpoints Sociocultural Environment Each sociocultural group fosters its own cultural patterns by systematically teaching its offspring  Subgroups foster beliefs and norms of their own  When social roles conflict, healthy personality development may be impaired  Sociocultural Viewpoints Pathogenic Societal Influences  Low SES status and unemployment     Correlation between psychopathology and low SES – strength of correlation varies by disorder Lower SES families tend to have more problems/dysfunction because of the stressors associated with low SES Relationship between psychopathology and unemployment Underemployed people show rates of depression comparable to those seen in unemployed individuals Stereotypes are demoralizing Types of Discrimination    Prejudice and discrimination in race, gender, and ethnicity   Access Treatment  In addition to discrimination, women have also suffered from sexual harrassment in the workplace Sociocultural Viewpoints Pathogenic Societal Influences  Social change and uncertainty   Numerous adjustments demanded by change in our society Helplessness engendered by events such as September 11, 2001; Hurricane Katrina, etc. Annually 3.5 million people worldwide die from violence Domestic violence impacts physical health, lost productivity, and increases rates of anxiety, PTSD, depression, and suicide 1/3 of homeless people suffer from mental illness  Urban stressors: Violence and homelessness    Sociocultural Viewpoint Impact of the Sociocultural Viewpoint Broadened view from a focus on the individual to include a concern with societal, communal, familial, and other group settings  Led to design of programs  Led to community facilities  Changes in the DSM system  Theoretical Viewpoints The Psychodynamic Perspective Sigmund Freud founded the psychoanalytic school, which emphasizes the role of unconscious motives and thoughts  Structure of personality:       Id Ego Superego Life instincts and libido Death instincts Theoretical Viewpoints The Psychodynamic Perspective  Anxiety, defense mechanisms, and the unconscious    Freud believed that anxiety played a key causal role in most forms of psychopathology Neurotic and moral anxiety, because they are unconscious and so distressing, cannot be dealt with rationally Ego resorts to irrational protective mechanisms referred to as ego-defense mechanisms Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital  Psychosexual stages of development      Theoretical Viewpoints The Psychodynamic Perspective  Psychodynamic Psychopathology   Oedipus Complex/Electra Complex Castration anxiety/Penis envy Object relations theory – focuses on individuals’ interactions with real and imagined other people and on the relationships that people experience between their internal and external objects Interpersonal perspective – views psychopathology as rooted in unfortunate tendencies we have developed while dealing with our interpersonal environments Attachment theory - emphasizes the importance of early experiences, specifically the quality of parental care to the development of secure attachments  Newer psychodynamic perspectives    Theoretical Viewpoints The Psychodynamic Perspective  Impact of the Psychodynamic Perspective     Development of therapeutic techniques (free association, dream analysis, etc.) Recognition of the influence of the unconscious, early childhood experiences, and sexual factors Theory that problems develop as failed coping strategies Two important criticisms:   Failure to recognize scientific limits of personal reports of information Lack of scientific evidence to support many of its assumptions and the effectiveness of traditional psychoanalysis  Impact of the Newer Psychodynamic Perspective    Increased scientific rigor More focus on documenting effectiveness of treatment Enormous amount of research generated by attachment theory Theoretical Viewpoints The Behavioral Perspective  Classical Conditioning       Unconditioned stimulus (food) Unconditioned response (salivation) Conditioned stimulus (bell) Conditioned response (salivation) Extinction Spontaneous recovery Generalization and Discrimination  Observational Learning  Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (FOOD) Unconditioned Response (SALIVATION) Conditioned Stimulus (BELL) Conditioned Response (SALIVATION) Theoretical Viewpoints The Behavioral Perspective  Operant conditioning     Reinforcement (positive and negative) Punishment (positive and negative) Response-outcome expectancy Conditioned avoidance response Generalization and Discrimination  Observational Learning (Bobo doll)  Operant Conditioning Add Something to Environment Take Something out of Environment Increase Occurrence of Behavior POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT Decrease Occurrence of Behavior POSITIVE PUNISHMENT NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT Theoretical Viewpoints The Behavioral Perspective  Impact of the Behavioral Perspective  Maladaptive behavior is viewed essentially as the result of:   Failure to learn necessary adaptive behaviors or competencies Learning of ineffective or maladaptive responses    Focus of therapy is to change specific behaviors and emotional responses Hailed for precision and objectivity, wealth of research, and for its demonstrated effectiveness in changing specific behaviors Criticized for being “unemotional” or lacking empathy, focusing on specific behaviors, and for the misconception that it simplifies behavior Theoretical Viewpoints The Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective Bandura stressed that human beings regulate their behavior by internal symbolic processes or thoughts (internal reinforcement)  Believed that treatment works by improving selfefficacy (the belief that one can achieve one’s desired goal)  Theoretical Viewpoints The Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective  Schemas and Cognitive Distortions      Today, the cognitive or cognitive-behavioral perspective focuses on how thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behavior Beck developed the concept of a schema or underlying representative of knowledge that guides the current processing of information and often leads to distortions in attention, memory, and comprehension Self-schemas include our views about who we are, what we might become, and what is important to us Assimilation and accomodation Different forms of psychopathology are characterized by different maladaptive schemas that have developed as a function of adverse early learning experiences In sum…   Advantages of having a theoretical viewpoint  Consistent approach No one viewpoint accounts for the complex variety of maladaptive behaviors Ascribing to one approach may blind researchers to other factors Accepting working ideas from several viewpoints and incorporating whatever is found to be useful Works best in clinical practice rather than at a theoretical/abstract level Attempt at a unified perspective Most likely – a particular combination of factors that is unique for each individual Disadvantages of having a theoretical viewpoint    Eclectic Approach    Biopsychosocial Viewpoint  