Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION: HELPING ALL STUDENTS SUCCEED IN SCIENCE
Wilson J. González-Espada Arkansas Tech University Abstract Similar to other subject areas, science teachers face multicultural issues in their everyday interactions with students. As the Hispanic population in the United States increases at a significant rate, it is important for teachers and school administrators to embrace these demographic changes as positive and important contributions to our society, instead of a burden or a problem that must be solved. Teaching diverse student populations is a challenging task. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the basic tenets of multicultural education as reported in the literature and the importance of developing a critical approach to teaching/learning. Practical recommendations to help science teachers address the needs and learning styles of minority students, especially Hispanics, will be discussed. Introduction Throughout American history, forced and voluntary immigration has been an essential part of its establishment, growth, and composition. Although the immigrants’ importance is inarguable, they have struggled to survive in a different land, with different viewpoints, traditions, and language. This is especially so in the education arena. In the early part of the 20th century, schools struggled to provide a good education to immigrant from Poland, Italy, Germany, and for people of Jewish descent, among others. During this period, assimilation or Americanization was the educational policy. Students were stripped of their language and culture and were forced to choose the majority culture. Reports of the period indicated how immigrant students performed poorly in school and were considered inferior or mentally retarded (Darling-Hammond, 1995). In modern times, educators still struggle with most of the same issues as they did 100 years ago. A large proportion of new immigrants come from Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America. Reports on the status of their education indicate that minority students are more likely to attend inadequate schools, more likely to be taught by under-qualified teachers, and more likely to drop out of school. They are also less likely to graduate from high school, attend college, succeed in college, to attend graduate school, or to receive a terminal degree (US Department of Education, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c). There are several factors that contribute to this phenomenon, such as poverty, racism, sexism, classism, ethnocentrism, and linguicism (Sadker & Sadker, 1994; Weinberg, 1977). If a student is not European American, middle class, English-speaking, and
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 male, chances are he or she will experience one of these types of discrimination. The failure to provide an equitable and fair education in the United States has many sources. Society is at fault for perpetuating an emphasis on cultural difference rather than a consensus of similarity. Schools are at fault for not providing a relevant and challenging curriculum for all, for promoting a “sink-or-swim” approach to the learning of English and other school subjects for immigrants, for having a “de facto” segregation of students, for tracking students according to “ability,” and for not providing a diverse faculty body. Teachers who, consciously or unconsciously, have low expectations for minority students and who treat students differently based on race, gender, socioeconomic status, and language are also at fault. Finally, parents and students are also at fault if they fail to empower themselves above the limitations imposed by all of the above. Educators and sociologists have tried to establish a new philosophical paradigm for the education of students from diverse backgrounds. They argue in favor of two important concepts: cultural pluralism and multicultural education. A summary of cultural pluralism is provided by Bennett, 2001: [Cultural pluralism] affirms the democratic right of each ethnic group to retain its own dignity and universal human rights, and freedom to maintain one’s language and culture, provided the human dignity and rights of others are not violated ... Every child’s home culture must be affirmed and respected, and opportunities must be provided for all children to reach their fullest potential (p. 172). Along with cultural diversity, multicultural education assumes that the diversity of students’ background, experiences, and learning styles should be accepted and cherished instead of being perceived as a hindering force (Banks & McGee-Banks, 1995). This perspective is not only useful for the teaching of immigrant students, but for the teaching of historically oppressed groups, such as African American students. Because of the complex nature of educational failure, multicultural education does not claim to be the ultimate solution. However, when implemented appropriately, this approach has the potential to have a positive and significant impact on all students, especially students from diverse backgrounds (Nieto, 1996). The purpose of this paper is to explore the basic tenets of multicultural education from a critical approach to teaching/learning. Practical recommendations suggested by the literature to help science teachers address the needs and learning styles of minority students, especially Hispanics are summarized in the context of the author’s experiences as a Hispanic science educator. The following discussion and most of the suggestions are not necessarily subject specific. They can be implemented successfully in science courses and can be expanded to other subject areas.
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 Basic Tenets of Multicultural Education What is culture? Although there are many definitions of culture, it can be summarized in one sentence. Culture refers to a society’s shared beliefs, social values, worldviews, and preferred standards of behaving (Bennett, 2001). Culture is more than foods, holidays, dresses, and artistic expression. Culture also includes understanding the similarities and differences in communication styles, learning styles, language differences, attitudes, values, and family relationships between different cultures and within you own. Not recognizing these differences could lead to prejudice and discrimination. It is important to point out that racism and discrimination are not the same. According to Snyder (2003), discrimination can be classified in one of three categories: (a) individual discrimination, or the behavior of individual members of one group that is intended to have a harmful effect on members of another group, (b) institutional discrimination, or the policies of dominant institutions and behaviors of those who control them that are intended to have a harmful effect on subordinate groups, and (c) structural discrimination, or the policies of dominant institutions and behaviors of those who control them that are neutral in intent but have a harmful effect on subordinate groups. What is multicultural education? Nieto (2003) provided a representative definition of multicultural education from a sociopolitical context when she proposed that multicultural education be defined as an antiracist education that is firmly related to student learning and permeates all areas of schooling: [Multicultural education] is a way to confront the widespread and entrenched inequality in U.S. schools because its premise is that students of all backgrounds and circumstances can learn and achieve to high levels and –even more essential—that they deserve to do so (p. 6). Nieto (1996) characterizes multicultural education as being (a) antiracist; (b) basic education (it is essential to function in our society); (c) important for all students, not just for minority students; (d) pervasive (it permeates the school climate, physical environment, curriculum, and relationships, among others); (e) education for social justice (it addresses social inequalities during schooling); (f) process (ongoing and dynamic); and (g) critical pedagogy (challenges the status quo). Multicultural education calls for all aspects of education to be continuously examined, critiqued, reconsidered, and transformed in order to teach all students, regardless of their background (Gorski, 2002). It strives for equity as opposed to equality. Equality implies providing all students with the same curriculum, books, tests, and instructional strategies. Equity implies providing differential treatment based on the student’s background, experiences, and abilities (Bennett, 2001). In general, treating all students
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 equally is ignoring the fact that students are different: they learn differently, they process information differently; they have different needs, skills, experiences, talents, and even language proficiencies (Banks & McGeeBanks, 1997). For example, an airline that only offers a fixed menu for all passengers is thinking about equality. This menu will be problematic for people who are allergic, vegetarian or vegan, diabetic, or lactose intolerant. For instance, Delta Airlines’ website (Delta, 2003) offers a number of options for in-flight dining, such as “Bland,” “Diabetic,” “Gluten Free,” “Kosher,” “Low Calorie,” “Low Cholesterol/Low Fat,” “Low Sodium,” “Moslem,” “Seafood (Hot and Cold),” “Vegetarian,” “Vegan,” and “Asian (Hindu).” They are thinking from an equity standpoint. A multicultural teacher understands that within an ethnic group there are a variety of cultures and knows the correct terminology to name students (Nieto, 1996). African American students is the correct current term, as opposed to Afro-American, Black, or Negro. If you know your students’ nationality (Guatemalan, Mexican or Mexican American) it is preferable to use it as opposed to cluster them in a term such as Hispanic or Latino. Korean American, Japanese, or Chinese American is better than clustering terms such as Asian or Asian American. Native American or Native Nations is better than the incorrect term Indian (they are not from India). European American is better than White people. Anglo American should be used exclusively for people with an English descent. Note that in most cases the nomenclature emphasis is shifted from physical traits to cultural background. A teacher committed to issues of diversity understands the levels of multicultural education and strives to achieve the highest level. Tolerance (to bear or endure something, although at times it might be unpleasant or rejected later on) is the first level. The second level is Acceptance (acknowledging differences without denying their importance; transitional bilingual programs are an example of acceptance). Respect is the third level of multicultural education. It means to admire and hold in high esteem. If students’ values and experiences are used as a basis for the curriculum, the school is showing respect for diversity. The last level is Affirmation, Solidarity and Critique. This level means accepting the culture and language of students and their families as legitimate and embracing them as valid vehicles for learning. Cultural conflict is not avoided but rather accepted as an inevitable part of learning (Nieto, 1996). In terms of multicultural content integration to the subject areas, it is important to strive for the highest level possible. Banks and McGee-Banks’ (1997) levels of curriculum integration include: (a) Contributions Approach, or focusing on multicultural heroes, holidays, and discrete cultural elements; (b) Additive Approach, or add-ons of content, concepts, themes, and perspectives to an unchanged curriculum; (c) Transformation Approach, or to change the structure of the curriculum to enable students to view
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 concepts, issues, events, and themes from the perspective of diverse ethnic and cultural groups; and (d) Social Action Approach, where students make decisions on important social issues and take actions to help solve them. Strategies to Advance Multiculturalism The following suggestions are both literature-based and experiencebased. They work in helping all students to maximize their educational opportunities. Unfortunately, they cannot be implemented all at once over the course of a few days, especially if the teacher is not aware of the disparities that the school system seems to perpetuate. This is the reason why the first suggestion is for teachers to start thinking from both a critical standpoint and a multicultural perspective (Moss, 2001). Most teachers are not used to thinking in terms of pluralism and cannot respond effectively to a situation if they cannot “be in the shoes” of the other person. An enlightening example is the “discovery of America” and the “Westward expansion.” Thanksgiving is an example of how the Native American viewpoint is very different from the mainstream perspective: To some, the "First Thanksgiving" presents a distorted picture of the history of relations between the European colonists and their descendants and the Native People. The total emphasis is placed on the respect that existed between the Wampanoags led by the sachem Massasoit and the first generation of Pilgrims in Plymouth, while the long history of subsequent violence and discrimination suffered by Native People across America is nowhere represented (Studio Melizo, 2003, page 1). Part of thinking from a multicultural perspective is to recognize and challenge personal stereotypes (Miller, 2002; Swetnam, 2003). Many science teachers are ill prepared to be successful in a diverse classroom because they have limited knowledge about the history and culture of their students (Banks, Cookson, Gay, Hawley, Jordan, Nieto, Ward, and Stephan, 2001). Taylor (1991) found that to the extent that teachers harbor negative stereotypes about African American students, race alone is an important factor in the student’s poor academic performance. Rist (1970) found that teachers unknowingly grouped students as slow or fast learners based on race first, and on perceived social class if race was the same. Stegemiller (1989) expanded Rist’s results to include attractiveness and ethnicity. It is the teachers’ responsibility to educate themselves about the cultural traits, behaviors, values, and attitudes that different children of color bring to the classroom (Banks & McGee-Banks, 1997). It is also important to examine critically large-scale assessments and science textbooks. Historically, IQ tests have been used to segregate students, particularly those whose culture and language are different from the standard (European American, middle class, English-speaking, and male). Almost all newcomer groups, including Hispanics students, have done
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 poorly on these tests (Figueroa & García, 1994). Consequently, a disproportionate number of African American and Hispanics are labeled mentally retarded and are placed in classes for slow learners (Banks & McGee-Banks, 1997). In terms of other standardized tests, Atwater (1994) argues that the following false assumptions guide test takers when they prepare assessments: (a) there is a commonality of experience shared by test takers, (b) the educational opportunities in the home and neighborhood are similar for all test takers, (c) every test taker has equal facility with the language used in class instruction, (d) the syntax and word usage are familiar to all test takers, and (e) socio-cultural, economic, and linguistic differences can be ignored. Again, none of these assumptions is valid, but they guide large-scale assessments. On the other hand, science textbooks usually reinforce stereotypes and the dominance of European Americans in the sciences, and minimize or fail to mention the contributions of females and minority scientists (CapellaSantana, 2003; Miller, 2002). Sleeter and Grant (1991) found that White scientists receive the most attention and dominate the story line and the list of achievements. Atwater (1994) listed three common biases in science textbooks: (a) Invisibility of certain groups of people, which conveys to students that certain groups of people are less appreciated in the science, (b) stereotyping or assigning very rigid roles or attributes to groups of people in the sciences, which influences powerful people such as science teachers to discriminate against students in their classrooms who belong to these groups, and (c) fragmentation, isolation, and separation of scientific issues related to certain groups from the main science curricula so that students believe that science contributions of these people are nonexistent or insignificant” (p. 571). Implementing a multilingual approach in your classroom whenever possible will also provide a positive multicultural classroom climate. For example, if there is a large Spanish-speaking student population, Atwater (1994) recommended that actual science objects, models, and line drawings be presented in both Spanish and English so that the students are able to form science schema in either Spanish, English, or both languages. It is not uncommon for Hispanic students to speak Spanish because it is spoken at home, but not to read it. This is analogous to English language acquisition in preschoolers. Children learn first how to speak the language and then they learn how to read and write it. However, unlike preschoolers, older students take longer to acquire the language proficiency: In our studies we have found that in U.S. schools where all instruction is given through the second language (English), non-native speakers of English with no schooling in their first language take 7-10 years or more to reach age and grade-level norms of their native English-speaking peers. Immigrant students who have had 2-3 years of first language
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 schooling in their home country before they come to the U.S. take at least 5-7 years to reach typical native-speaker performance. This pattern exists across many student groups, regardless of the particular home language that students speak, country of origin, socioeconomic status, and other student background variables. (Collier, 1995, page 1). Should some students complain about using Spanish words during class, this would be a perfect time to educate them about multiculturalism and equity in education. Research suggest that getting away from traditional teacher-centered methods of instruction and emphasizing hands-on activities, inquiry experiences, small group work, critical thinking, and creativity helps all students, not just minority groups or females, to understand the science material better. According to Atwater (1994), “The more traditional ways of teaching science might not be as effective with underrepresented groups in science as are some of the active, relational and holistic approaches” (p. 563). The teacher should also use a variety of learning styles, learning modalities, and intelligences in the science classroom. Learning modality is the way a student prefers to receive information. The three most prevalent modalities are kinesthetic, visual, and auditory, in that order. Learning style is the way student process the information they receive. The best ways to teach children depend on the individual students’ cognitive style (Atwater, 1994). Another recommendation is to have high expectations for all your students. Some teachers tend to underestimate minority students, not believing that they are capable of academically demanding work (Nieto, 2003). In reality, access to high level and demanding academic courses has a positive a long-term effect for minority students: The content that makes up the lessons student are taught influences the level of students achievement ... In general, students who are taught curricula that are more rigorous learn more than their peers with similar prior knowledge and backgrounds who are taught less demanding curricula (Banks, Cookson, Gay, Hawley, Jordan, Nieto, Ward, and Stephan, 2001). In addition, teachers with low expectations for their students unconsciously (or consciously sometimes) transmit that message to the students. This becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968). It is not recommended to oversimplify your course to “meet the needs” of your diverse students. It is not recommended that teachers embrace a “colorblind” perspective in their classrooms. Although colorblindness reduces the potential for overt conflict and minimizes discomfort or embarrassment, it may result in refusing to accept differences and therefore accepting the majority culture as the norm (Banks & McGee-Banks, 1997). Acknowledge, accept, and
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 respect students’ differences to create a more productive and enriching learning environment. Some of the previous recommendations to advance multiculturalism might require teachers to shift their educational philosophy, moving away from their “comfort zone” and into a more critical worldview of education. The next group of suggestions is more practical and could be readily implemented. Introduce multicultural contributions to science in your curriculum. Teachers can include the essential role of females (Byers, 2003; Hassold, Thomas, and Frerichs, 2003), African Americans (Brown, 2000), Hispanics (National Atomic Museum, 2003), and minorities in general (Brown, 2003) throughout the academic year. By doing so, teachers are providing minority students and females with role models for students to identify with. Discipline your students in the same way for the same misbehavior. Research suggests that poor students and students of color are more likely to be punished and suspended compared with White students (Nieto, 1996). This differential treatment enhances the tensions between groups in school and portrays the teacher as having “double standards” for fairness. Make your curriculum relevant for all of your students. Historically, the U.S. curriculum has emphasized an European American worldview. However, research suggests that the lack of relevance of the curriculum for minority students might affect their school performance (Capella-Santana, 2003). Since it is very common for curricular decisions to be made by those furthest from the lives of students (e.g., state boards of education), it is the teacher’s responsibility to integrate their students’ experiences, knowledge, and skills into the lessons. The role of the teachers is to ensure that the instruction that is focused on the selected themes covers the content, goals, and objectives prescribes by local or state standards (García, 1995). Take advantage of community resources that can make your class culturally diverse. If possible, talk to parents about how they can contribute their time during the academic year. For example, invite your Hispanic students’ parents to become involved in your class as aides or translators. Moll (1992) found that families possessed impressive knowledge in diverse areas and that they are willing to contribute to the academic success of their children. Another aspect of community involvement is the use of successful minority scientists as role models. Atwater (1994) summarizes: Adult role models and encouragement seem to influence some students’ career decisions. [Researchers] found that exposure to, along with interaction with, professional role models in the science and engineering was critical for the recruitment and retention of students’ science interest and participation (p. 565). Be aware of verbal and nonverbal communication differences between you and your diverse students. For example, Hispanic students usually keep their sight downward when they are disciplined. They are showing respect,
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 not defiance. Some of the African American students’ communication style is often interpreted by teachers as “acting out” in class or just as having poor English. Recently arrived Asian students might not be familiar with a friendly informal teacher, or might not consider asking a teacher questions as appropriate behavior. When answering questions verbally, Native Americans students may be perceived as slow by teachers. In reality, deliberate thought is emphasized in their culture. Emphasize cooperation over competition. Cooperative learning is a proven strategy that helps minority students to feel more comfortable and to learn more in the science classroom (García, 1995). However, most schools tend to mirror mainstream U.S. culture by favoring a competitive and individualistic teaching and learning style. When science classrooms are structured around competition, students learn that some students are winners and some are losers. According to Atwater (1994), cooperative learning is an excellent alternative: Cooperative learning not only assists students who are members of underrepresented groups in the sciences in working together and appreciating each other but also enable students to learn how to act collectively on various issues. (p. 570). Encourage the school administration to recruit bilingual and multicultural faculty and staff. So far European Americans far outnumber minority educators in most school leadership and instructional positions. At the same time, the diversity of student population is on the rise (Nieto, 2003). To increase the school’s diversity, due consideration should be given to bilingual and multicultural candidates. If two candidates for a position have equal qualifications, the bilingual or multicultural candidate should be chosen. When choosing an applicant school administrators should keep in mind that students who share the same background as their teachers demonstrate better academic gain in school. Not accommodating the needs of bilingual students could produce lawsuits such as Lau v. Nichols (1974), where the Supreme Court decided that, since students cannot participate effectively in an educational program if it already requires some of the language skills students are supposed to learn in that educational program, school programs conducted exclusively in English denied equal access to education to students who spoke little or no English. Be prepared for mutual acculturation. Most of the time, only students from minority groups and their families are asked to modify their culture in order to better fit with the school culture. The school and the teachers should also be open to learn about other cultures, their languages, and their needs. Teachers and students need to modify their behavior in the direction of a common goal: academic success with cultural integrity (Nieto, 1996). This acculturation can be done by using the students’ social and linguistic resources.
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 Watch your language. Refrain as much as possible from using racially charged words or words that might be offensive to some groups in inappropriate contexts. For example words such as blackball, black box, black cloud, black leg (replacement workers used during a strike), black list, black look, blackmail, black market, black magic, black sheep, and black side are legitimate words in the English language but have a racially negative tone, as opposed to white hope (a person who is expected to bring honor and glory to some group), white lie, and whitewash. Derogatory names for Hispanics (beaners, berry-picker, hot footer, border bunny, pepper belly, wetback, “mojados”, spics), Japanese (Jap and nip), and Native Americans (squaw, chief, injun, redskin) must be avoided. Avoid comparing a Native American with an apple, an Asian American with a Twinkie, or an African American with a coconut. These comparisons imply that although the external appearance of a person corresponds to a minority group, the person has lost its cultural identity and is perceived to act “White”. Know the potential peer pressure sources of your students. For example, research suggests that a number of African American students do not reach their full academic potential because they fear rejection from their African American peers. Succeeding in school is equivalent to “act White” for some of these students (Fordham and Ogbu, 1986). Successful African American students found ways to offset their academic success (e.g., participating in sports, clowning around, exchange academic assistance for inclusion) so that their group would not reject them. Participate in professional development and/or continuing education programs on multiculturalism. Research suggests a tendency of some nonminority teachers to resist incorporating multicultural strategies in their classroom (Moss, 2001). Conversely, positive changes are experienced by teachers involved in fieldwork experiences in culturally and ethnically diverse settings, and who enroll in multicultural courses (Capella-Santana, 2003). Programs that help teachers understand the interaction of race, ethnicity, and education are a way to help all students succeed in science (Banks, Cookson, Gay, Hawley, Jordan, Nieto, Ward, and Stephan, 2001): Professional development programs should help teachers understand the complex characteristics of ethnic groups and how such variables as social class, religion, region, generation, extent of urbanization, and gender strongly influence ethnic and cultural behavior ... If teachers are to increase learning opportunities for all students, they must be knowledgeable about the social and cultural contexts of teaching and learning (p. 196). Teachers who are interested in such professional development programs can usually locate guest speakers through the school district. Another possibility is to coordinate with colleges that already offer such courses to schedule an evening section or offer them online.
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 Encourage respectful and open discussions about stereotypes, discrimination, and similar issues in your class. One way to achieve this is to engage students in culturally relevant assignments that promote discussions from multiple perspectives (Miller, 2002). Research assignments and critical examinations of media (newspaper articles and TV shows for example) will surely provide students with the opportunity to talk about issues such as race, ethnicity, social class and how that information is relevant to them. Implications for Science Teachers The Hispanic population in some states has increased significantly over the last 10 years. Like any other group, Hispanics have the right to a quality education. This is the reason why issues of multiculturalism are very much in the minds of many science teachers. Science teachers need as much help as possible to provide quality education for the influx of Hispanic students arriving at public schools each year. This article provides both literaturebased and experience-based suggestions in this direction. It also provides a list of references that could be considered the basic departure point in the science teacher’s never-ending quest for helping majority and minority students alike in achieving the science literacy level they deserve. Science teachers see how media creates and emphasizes stereotypical ideas about minority students and the detrimental effect these stereotypes have on their students. They observe how some colleagues have prejudiced notions about those same minority students. They debate the advantages and disadvantages of bilingual education, given the fact that what some research suggests about how to effectively integrate student with limited English proficiency in regular classrooms is sometimes contradicted by state education laws. Local science teachers are aware that different students have different learning styles and modalities, and that sometimes a teaching style is not aligned with these. They face the dilemma of applying inquiry methods supported by science education research and state standards as a way to help all students, not just minorities, without proper laboratory equipment or classroom space. Professionals who teach continuing education courses in multicultural science education have an excellent vantage point to receive valuable feedback from local science and math teachers who are facing the everyday issues that relate to their minority students and should be made themselves more available as a resource to act on improving science education. Conclusion Local teachers must be proactive in providing minority students the quality education they deserve. There are many challenges to face especially since it is extremely difficult for some to move away from the status quo and to change deeply rooted attitudes and prejudices. One thing is certain: doing
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 nothing about the education of minority students is fundamentally unfair and antidemocratic. According to Atwater (1994): Diversity in the classroom is both a challenge and an opportunity. It is a challenge because our knowledge and skills for effectively teaching diverse student population has not kept up with the influx of students we need to serve. It is an opportunity to teach about the joy of experiencing a variety of cultures, languages, and of respecting all people. It is necessary to provide K-12 science teachers with the knowledge and skills to teach all students science (p. 560). A lot of patience, perseverance, and a positive attitude are needed to turn a challenge into an opportunity. Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank Dr. Linda Kondrick for her critical reading of a previous version of this paper. References Atwater, M. M. (1994). Research on cultural diversity in the classroom. In D. L. Gabel (ed.), Handbook of research on science teaching and learning. New York, NY: Macmillan, pp. 558-576. Banks, J. A., Cookson, P., Gay, G., Hawley, W. D., Jordan, J., Nieto, S., Ward, J., and Stephan, W. G. (2001). Diversity within unity: Essential principles for teaching and learning in a multicultural society. Phi Delta Kappan, 83(3), 196-203. Banks, J. A. and McGee-Banks, C. A. (1995). Handbook of research on multicultural education. New York, NY: Macmillan. Banks, J. A. and McGee-Banks, C. A. (1997). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives, (3rd ed). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Bennett, C. (2001). Genres of research in multicultural education. Review of Educational Research, 71(2), 171-217. Brown, M. C. (2000). The faces of science: African Americans in the sciences. Retrieved on October 15, 2003, from http://www.princeton.edu/~mcbrown/display/faces.html Brown. M. C. (2003). Minorities in science: Guide to reference sources. Retrieved on October 15, 2003, from http://www.lib.lsu.edu/hum/mlk/ srs119.html. Byers. N. (2003). Contribution of 20th century women to physics. Retrieved on October 15, 2003, from http://www.physics.ucla.edu/%7Ecwp/ Capella-Santana, N. (2003). Voices of teacher candidates: Positive changes in multicultural attitudes and knowledge. Journal of Educational Research, 96(3), 182-190.
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 Collier, V. P. (1995). Acquiring a second language for school. Directions in Language & Education. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. Retrieved on February 2, 2004, from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/ncbepubs/directions/04.htm Darling-Hammond, L. (1995). Inequality and access to knowledge. In J. A. Banks and C. A. McGee-Banks (eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education. New York, NY: Macmillan, p. 475. Delta (2003). Delta airlines website. Retrieved on October 15, 2003, from http://www.delta.com/travel/during flight/dining/index.jsp Figueroa, R. A. and García, E. (1994). Issues in testing students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Multicultural Education, 2(1), 10-19. Fordham, S. and Ogbu, J. U. (1986). Black students' school success: Coping with the burden of “acting White.” Urban Review, 18(3), 176-206. García, E. E. (1995). Educating Mexican American students: Past treatment and recent developments in theory, research, policy, and practice. In J. A. Banks and C. A. McGee-Banks, Handbook of research on multicultural education. New York, NY: Macmillan, pp. 372-387. Gorski, P. C. (2002). Dismantling the digital divide: A multicultural education framework. Multicultural Education, 10(1), 28-30. Hassold, N., Thomas, K., and Frerichs, A. (2003). Women of science. Retrieved on October 15, 2003, from http://library.thinkquest.org/ 20117/ Lau vs. Nichols (1974). No. 72 – 6520, Supreme Court of the United States, 414 U.S. 56. Retrieved on October 15, 2003, from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/miscpubs/lau/ Miller, H. M. (2002). Becoming a multicultural teacher. The Reading Teacher, 55(4), 346-347. Moll, L. C. (1992). Bilingual classroom studies and community analysis: Some recent trends. Educational Researcher, 21(2), 20-24. Moss, G. (2001). Critical pedagogy: Translation for education that is multicultural. Multicultural Education, 9(2), 2-11. National Atomic Museum (2003). Hispanics in science and engineering. Retrieved on October 15, 2003, from http://www.atomicmuseum.com/ tour/scientists.cfm Nieto, S. (1996). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers. Nieto. S. (2003). Profoundly multicultural questions. Educational Leadership, 60(4), 6-10. Rist, R. (1970). Student social class and teacher expectations: The selffulfilling prophecy in ghetto education. Harvard Educational Review, 40(3), 411-451. Rosenthal, R., and Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
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Electronic Journal of Literacy through Science, Volume 3 (12), 2004 Sadker, M., and Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairness: How America’s schools cheat girls. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Sleeter, C.E. and Grant, C.A. (1991). Textbooks and race, class, gender and disability. In M. W. Apple and L. Christian-Smith, (Eds.) Politics of the Textbook. New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall, pp. 78-110. Snyder, L. (2003). Discrimination and race. Retrieved on October 15, 2003, from http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~lsnyder/sw301/Discrimination. htm Stegemiller, H. A. (1989). An annotated bibliography of the literature dealing with the contributing factors of teacher expectations on student performance (ERIC Document Reproduction Service no. ED 313323). Studio Melizo (2003). Thanksgiving on the net: The national day of mourning. Retrieved on October 15 2003, from http://www.holidays.net/thanksgiving/mourn.htm Swetnam, L. A. (2003). Lessons on multicultural education from Australia and the United States. The Clearing House, 76(4), 208-211. Taylor, A. R. (1991). Social competence and the early school transition: Risk and protective factors for African American children. Education and Urban Society, 24(1), 15-26. U.S. Department of Education (2003a). From risk to opportunity: Fulfilling the educational needs of Hispanic Americans in the 21st century. Washington, DC: President’s Advisory Commission on Educational Excellence for Hispanic American. U.S. Department of Education (2003b). National Center for Education Statistics: Status and trends in the education of Blacks, by Kathryn Hoffman and Charmaine Llagas. Project Officer: Thomas D. Snyder. Washington, DC (NCES 2003–034) U.S. Department of Education (2003c). National Center for Education Statistics: Status and trends in the education of Hispanics, by Charmaine Llagas. Project Officer: Thomas D. Snyder. Washington, DC (NCES 2003–008). Weinberg, M. (1977). A history of race and education in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
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