The Power of Design
Handout: Research Recap
Ludwika A. Goodson, Senior Instructional Designer, Worldwide Online Division, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, goodsonl@erau.edu InSook Ahn, Aesthetics and Fashion Design Georgia Southern University, iahn@georgiasouthern.edu SoTL Commons Conference, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, Georgia, March 12, 2009 Significant Learning and Alignment According to Fink (2007), the power of design begins with identifying significant learning.
This power gains momentum with integrated course design. In sum, Fink‟s representation aligns well with educational research over the past 20 years.
Ludwika A. Goodson and InSook Ahn, The Power of Design, SoTL Commons Conference, Georgia Southern University, March 12, 2009 Page 1 of 6
Significant improvements in learning occur when courses have been redesigned to show this alignment of goals, with activities, and with feedback and assessment, and so that they build in progressive complexity. For example, beginning with foundational knowledge, followed by application, integration, adding learning how to learn, and supporting the whole process with the human dimension, caring, authentic tasks, and clear criteria and standards. Access to the Worldwide Web and online learning forums expand the world of learning from a few opportunities to authentic and diverse knowledge and applications that are representative of the discipline in which they are studying. But what have been the results? Results are not quite as simple to sort out, but where there have been advantages for online instruction, the reasons appear to be the quality of the design. Supportive Technology Results Supportive technology is one of the top effective strategies when used to enhance instruction (e.g., using computers, etc., for simulations; modeling abstract concepts and collecting data; showing videos to emphasize a concept; using pictures, photographs, or diagrams) (Schroeder, et al., 2007). Technology has a variety of forms. Instructional Television. Instructional television can be separate from a computer system or connected for interactive learning. Instructional television has been about as effective as a live instructor for lecture-based teaching, and when realistic visuals are required to master the content, can do more to support learning than other alternatives (Montague & Knirk, n.d., 6 of 13). Instructional television can work better than an instructor when realistic visuals are required to master the content (Montague & Knirk, n.d., 6 of 13). Interactive video instruction improves achievement and appears to be more effective when viewed in groups and when using structured with built-in guidance rather than being controlled by the student (Montague & Knirk, n.d.).
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Reed and Doviak (2001) found that instructional television provided better comprehension after showing abstract concepts; enhanced collaborative learning; had equal benefits from taped and live programs; contributed to students‟ feelings of successful participation; had equal benefits for small rural schools as for large urban ones. Design of the instruction accounts for results, not the technology per se, including opportunities for participation, time to complete coursework, and adequate and timely feedback. Audio. Some studies have shown particular advantages to use of audio. For example, audio feedback tends to be “more and better” than written comments and motivates students (Barron, 1996). Since audio learning is rarely presented in isolation of other forms of learning, it is difficult to sort out its effects. Many studies show it is advantageous for short-term memory of simple content; others show it has no significant differences compared to other forms of learning. Cognitive load, alignment, underlying linguistic structure such as use of concrete language, organization, and imagery influence its success. Significant findings include (Barron, 1996, p. 961): For difficult tasks that require students to integrate concepts from multiple sources, transferring the written information into auditory form can be helpful. If the audio is long, it causes an information overload and will not be beneficial. If it makes excessive demands on memory, even if short, the audio will not help. If the audio is not needed or if it is redundant, it is unlikely to make a difference in learning.
The basic advantages of auditory instruction include (Barron, 2004): Audiotaped feedback to students tends to be of higher quality and better understood than written feedback (p. 953) Audio information tends to be “recalled better than the same information presented visually” (p. 958) Combined audio and print presentations tend to be more effective than either audio or print alone, when the materials are aligned in content (p. 959) Audio gets students‟ attention more often than images (p. 963)
Variations in results include (Barron, 2004, p. 965): With female voice narration, female students outperform male students Students tend to be more on task when wearing headphones “Gender of the speaker, tone, mode, pacing, cultural cues, and message” have different importance to different listeners
Computer Technology Computer technology has the capability to provide individual guidance, give immediate feedback, increase interaction, and accommodate individual pacing (Crowl, Kaminsky, & Podell, 1997; Mikk & Luik, 2006; Montague & Knirk, n.d.).
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Students using computers for instruction learn at least as well when paired at a computer as they do working by themselves and computer aided instruction helps teachers manage instructional time (Montague & Knirk, n.d.). A meta-analysis of research on K-12 distance education (Cavanaugh, Gillan, Kromrey, Hess & Blomeyer, 2004) showed that “distance education is as effective as classroom instruction” (p. 16) and that “students can experience similar levels of academic success while learning using telecommunications and learning in classroom settings” (p. 21). The following applications of computer-mediated communication have been effective in improving learning of lower and higher order thinking: Practicing inference skills and problem-solving strategies (Kauchak & Eggen, 1998). Building skill in areas such as verbal analogies, logical reasoning, and inductive/deductive thinking (Cotton, 1997). Drilling and practicing, which incorporate probes or tests (Crowl, Kaminsky, & Podell, 1997) Instruction in a wide range of subjects, including literary comprehension and interpretation, biomedical cognition, history, and military strategy situations (Montague & Knirk, n.d., 5 of 13) Practicing complex skills that would too difficult or risky to practice in the actual performance environment (Montague & Knirk, n.d.).
Computer Based Online Instruction Computer-based online instruction has been effective in a wide range of subjects, including literary comprehension and interpretation, biomedical cognition, history, military strategy situations, and physics (Montague & Knirk, n.d., 5 of 13; Pol, Harskamp, & Suhre, 2005; Rothman, 2000). When combined with classroom instruction, it has been shown to improve student attitudes, motivation, and achievement (Crowl, Kaminsky, & Podell, 1997; Montague & Knirk, n.d., 8 of 14); in practicing thinking and problem-solving skills (Kauchak & Eggen, 1998; Cotton, 1997; Mestre, 2001, pp. 11-12); in simulations and practicing skills too difficult or risky to practice in a real context (Montague & Knirk, n.d.). Other research shows that technology that is well designed produces the differences in favor of online courses, where such differences occur (Maki & Maki, 2003; Snipes, 2005). As cited by Snipes (2005), the features that give learning power to well-designed integration of Web learning technology with face-to-face instruction include: aligning learning and performance contexts (improves learning up to 55%) providing retrieval practice and testing (improves learning up to 100%) using appropriate feedback and schedules (improves learning up to 50%) prompting meaningful repetition (improves learning up to 110%) spacing repetitions and practice over time (improves learning up to 40%) avoiding the addition of distracting elements (improves learning up to 50%) appropriately using learning objectives (improves learning up to 45%)
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“Based on information from the 2004-05 and 2005-06 school years, Florida TaxWatch found that FLVS students consistently outperform their counterparts in two critical areas: test scores and grades earned in courses” (Pozo-Olano, 2007). In 2006-07, the school served “more than 50,000 students in 80,000 half-credit courses in Florida” (IMS Global Learning Consortium, Inc., 2008, ¶3). The school also received different awards for excellence from 2000-2007 (¶2). Success of online technology for learning is well documented by Meyer (n.d.) in an ERIC Digest about online learning referencing Russell‟s review of 355 studies on distance education. The “learning is not caused by the technology, but by the instructional method „embedded in the media” (Clark, 1994, p. 22).” In a recent meta-analysis of research on distance education, the data showed that nearly 70% of the studies had differences that favored online instruction (Zhao, Lai, Yan, Lai, Tan, H., 2005). Design features that enhance learning include (Mikk & Luik, 2003, p. 535): opportunities to review (forward and back) limits on concept density (too many concepts create cognitive overload) informative feedback (correctness and how to improve)
The essential principles for K-12 online teaching identified by the Southern Regional Education Board (2002) for curriculum, instruction, and student assessment include: Preassessment of student background and content knowledge Use of appropriate technology for online learning Use of fair, adequate, and appropriate assessment methods High-quality written communication Availability a flexibility of teacher support Collaborative learning with teacher facilitation and monitoring of interactions Standards and enforcement for students‟ behaviors of academic integrity and appropriate use of Internet and written communication Compliance with Americans with Disabilities Act Effective use of online resources for delivery of instruction, aligning content with course objectives and standards Access to technical and academic support for students‟ needs Adaptation of learning activities to meet students‟ needs Collaborative learning opportunities—“emails, discussion strands, simulations, lab activities and other group projects” that “encourage student participation and interaction” (p. 4)
Many online programs actually integrate learning objects with video and audio into the learning materials. Thus, it is reasonable to expect some of the results for instructional television apply also to those programs that use such media interactive components. Games and Simulations Effectiveness for learning from games and simulations depends on the following factors (Gredler, 2004):
Ludwika A. Goodson and InSook Ahn, The Power of Design, SoTL Commons Conference, Georgia Southern University, March 12, 2009 Page 5 of 6
Defined roles, responsibilities, and constraints for each participant A data-rich system that allows students to try out different strategies Feedback to students on results Explicit teaching to students of prerequisite capabilities in order to avoid cognitive load (if students do not have the entry-level preparation, they will be unlikely to learn)
Effectiveness for learning from microworlds depends on the following factors (Rieber, 2004): A data-rich system with multiple representations and which allows learners to combine objects or operations in complex ways A “very able teacher serving a dual role: teacher-as-facilitator and teacher-as-learner” (p. 588) and the teacher‟s firm commitment to this learning process (p. 593), someone who “knows how and when to challenge, provoke, suggest, scaffold, guide, direct, tech, and, most of all, leave a group of students alone to wrestle with a problem on their own terms” (p. 600)
In addition to references cited above: Fink, D. L. (2007, Winter). The power of course design to increase student engagement and learning. Peer Review, 9 (1). Available at http://www.aacu.org/peerreview/pr-wi07/prwi07_analysis3.cfm
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