About the technical report

							                                           Technical Reports

About the Technical Report
The major focus of this technical writing course is the technical report. Just about everything you study, everything you
write, is geared toward preparing you to write this final report. The early, short assignment involving instructions or
descriptions and the like give you practice using headings, lists, notices, and graphics; in handling numbers and
abbreviations; and of course in producing good, clear, well-organized writing.

For many students, the technical report is the longest document they've ever written. It normally involves some research;
often the information comes not only from published sources in the library, but also sources outside the library,
including nonpublished things such as interviews, correspondence, and video tapes. It may also be the fanciest
document: it uses binding and covers and has special elements such as a table contents, title page, and graphics.

As you think about what you want to write about for this project, don't shy away from topics you are curious about or
interested in, but don't know much about. You don't need to do exhaustive research; normally, you can pull together
information for an excellent report from several books and a half-dozen articles. Our real focus is the writing: how well
adapted to a specific audience it is, how clear and readable it is, how it flows, how it's organized, how much detail it
provides. We are also focused on format: how well you use headings, lists, notices; how well you incorporate graphics;
how well you handle the front- and back-matter elements; and how nice a job you do of turning out the final copy of the
report.

You don't need a fancy laser printer and you don't need to be a trained graphic artist to produce a fine-looking report. A
simple typewriter or dot-matrix printer, scissors, tape, whiteout, a good-quality photocopier, and access to nice (but
inexpensive) binding are all you need. Plan on doing a first-rate job on the report; remember that past students have
shown prospective employers their reports and have benefited by doing so.
Your job in this unit then is to define the following:

      Report topic: Decide what subject you are going to write on; narrow it as much as possible.
      Report audience: Define a specific person or group of people for whom you are going to write the report. Define
       the circumstances in which this report is needed.
      Report purpose: Define what the report will accomplish--what needs of the audience it is going to fulfill.
      Report type: Decide on the type of report--for example, technical background report, feasibility report,
       instructions, or some other.


You can do these in any order: for some people, it helps to start by defining an audience or a report type first. For others,
beginning by picking a topic is more stimulating. Once you have defined these elements, you can start testing your
report-project ideas by asking yourself these questions:

      Is there hard, specific, factual data for this topic?
      Will there be at least one or two graphics?
      Is there some realistic need for this report?
Types of Technical Reports
Technical-background report. The background report is the hardest to define but the most commonly written. This
type of technical report provides background on a topic--for example, solar energy, global warming, CD-ROM
technology, a medical problem, or U.S. recycling activity. However, the information on the topic is not just for anybody
who might be interested in the topic, but for some individual or group that has specific needs for it and is even willing to
pay for that information. For example, imagine an engineering firm bidding on a portion of the work to build a
hemodialysis clinic. The engineers need to know general knowledge about renal disease and the technologies used to
treat it, but they don't want to have to go digging in the library to find it. What they need is a technical background
report on the subject.

Instructions. These are probably the most familiar of all the types of reports. Students often write backup procedures for
the jobs they do at their work. Others write short user manuals for an appliance, equipment, or program. If there is too
much to write about, they write about some smaller segment--for example, instead of instructions on using all of
WordPerfect, just a guide on writing macros in WordPerfect.

Feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports. Another useful type of report is one that studies a problem or
opportunity and then makes a recommendation. A feasibility report tells whether a project is "feasible"--that is, whether
it is practical and technologically possible. A recommendation report compares two or more alternatives and
recommends one (or, if necessary, none). An evaluation or assessment report studies something in terms of its worth or
value. For example, a college might investigate the feasibility of giving every student an e-mail address and putting
many of the college functions online. The same college might also seek recommendations on the best hardware and
software to use (after the feasibility report had determined it was a good idea). In practice, however, it's hard to keep
these two kinds of reports distinct. Elements of the feasibility and recommendation report intermingle in specific
reports--but the main thing is to get the job done!

Primary research report. Primary research refers to the actual work someone does in a laboratory or in the field--in
other words, experiments and surveys. You may have written a "lab report," as they are commonly called, for one of
your previous courses. This is a perfectly good possibility for the technical report as well. In this type of report, you not
only present your data and draw conclusions about it, but also explain your methodology, describe the equipment and
facilities you used, and give some background on the problem. You can modify this type by summarizing other primary
research reports. For example, you could report on the research that has been done on saccharine.

Technical specifications. In this report type, you discuss some new product design in terms of its construction,
materials, functions, features, operation, and market potential. True specifications are not much on writing--the text is
dense, fragmented; tables, lists, and graphics replace regular sentences and paragraphs whenever possible. Thus,
specifications are not a good exercise of your writing abilities. However, you can write a more high-level version--one
that might be read by marketing and planning executives.

Report-length proposal. As you may be aware, proposals can be monster documents of hundreds or even thousands of
pages. Most of the elements are the same, just bigger. Plus elements from other kinds of reports get imported--such as
feasibility discussion, review of literature, and qualifications; these become much more elaborate.

Business prospectus. If you are ambitious to run your own business, you can write a business prospectus, which is a
plan or proposal to start a new business or to expand an existing one. It is aimed primarily at potential investors.
Therefore, it describes the proposed business, explores the marketplace and the competition, projects revenues, and
describes the operation and output of the proposed business.
Audience and Situation in Technical Reports
A critical step in your early report planning is to define a specific audience and situation in which to write the report. For
example, if you wanted to write about CD audio players, the audience cannot be this vague sort of "anybody who is
considering purchasing a CD player." You have to define the audience in terms of its knowledge, background, and need
for the information.

      Why does the audience need this information?
      How will readers get access to this information?

You also have to define the audience in terms of who they are specifically: that means things like names, organization or
company, street address and phone numbers, and occupation or position.

Just as critical to the planning process is defining the situation. When you define audience, you define who the readers
are, what they know or don't know in relation to the topic, what experience or background they have in relation to the
topic, and why they want or might need the information. Sometimes this leaves out a critical element: just what are the
circumstances that bring about the need for the information.
Topics for Technical Reports
Just about any topic can be worked into a good technical-report project. Some are a little more difficult than others;
that's where your instructor can help. And, that is why there is the proposal assignment: it gives your instructor a chance
to see what you want to do and to guide you away from problems such as the following:

Editorializing. For the report project, avoid editorial topics. For example, don't attempt to write a technical report on the
pro's and con's of gun control, abortion, marijuana, and the like. You can, however, develop these topics: for example,
describe the chemical, physiological aspects of marijuana or the medical techniques for abortion or the developmental
stages of the fetus. These get into substantial technical areas. But avoid editorializing--there are other courses where you
can do this.

Fuzzy topics. Some topics just don't work, for some reason. For example, dream analysis can be very fuzzy and
nebulous. So can UFOs. You want your report to have hard factual data in it. The preceding topics are difficult to pin
down this way. However, good reports have been written on the apparatus used in dream research laboratories. Maybe
somebody can even figure out a good way to handle UFOs.

Tough technical topics. As mentioned earlier, don't shy away from interesting topics that you don't feel you know
enough about. No one expects a doctoral thesis. Use the report project as a chance to learn something new. Of course,
it's common sense that we often write better about things we know about. If this is a concern for you, look around you in
your work, hobbies, or academic studies.

At the same time, however, don't be concerned that your has to be about computers, electronics, or some other
"technical" topic. Remember that the word technical refers to any body of specialized knowledge.
Instructors as software. And of course if you are absolutely stumped, get with your instructor. Use your instructor as a
brainstorming device. Here are some areas in which you can look for topics as well:

      Your major, future courses: Think about some the courses you have taken or will soon be taking within your
       major. Browse through some textbooks used in those courses.
      Magazines, journals, periodical indexes: Do some browsing in magazines and journals that are of interest to you.
       Indexes are a terrific way of brainstorming for a topic--they are huge lists of topics!
      Career plans, current work: Consider what sorts of work you will be doing in your chosen field; you may be able
       to think of some topics by this means. Take a look around you at work--there may be some possibilities there as
       well.
      Ideas for improvements: Take a look around your home, school, neighborhood, or city. What needs to be fixed,
       improved? Thinking along these lines can also lead to some good topics.
      Problems: Think about problems--your own, the city's, the state's, the country's, the world's. Think about problem
       in relation to certain groups of people. There are plenty of topics here as well.
General Characteristics of Technical Reports
You're probably wondering what this technical report is supposed to look like. Ask your instructor to show you a few
example reports. In addition to that, here is a brief review of some of the chief characteristics of the technical report:
      Graphics: The report should have graphics. Graphics include all kinds of possibilities, as a later chapter in this
       book will show. If you can't think of any graphics for your report project, you may not have a good topic. Get in
       touch with your instructor, who can help you brainstorm for graphics.
      Factual detail: The report should be very detailed and factual. The point of the report is to go into details, the kind
       of details your specific audience needs.
      Information sources: Your report should make use of information sources. These may include not only books and
       articles that can be found in libraries but also technical brochures, interviews or correspondence with experts, as
       well as first-hand inspections. If you don't believe any information sources are necessary for your report project,
       contact your instructor.
      Documentation: When you use borrowed information in your technical report, be sure to cite your sources. The
       style of citing your sources (also called "documenting" your sources) used in this course is called the number
       system.
      Realistic audience and situation: The report must be defined for a real or realistic group of readers who exist in a
       real or realistic situation. Most students invent an audience and situation. And the audience can't merely be
       something like "anybody who might be interested in global warming." Instead, it has to be real, realistic, and
       specific: for example, "Texas Coastal Real Estate Developers Association, interested in reliable information on
       global warming, to be used to aid in long-range investment planning."
      Headings and lists: The report should use the format for headings that is required for the course, as well as
       various kinds of lists as appropriate.
      Special format: The technical report uses a rather involved format including covers, binding, title page, table of
       contents, list of figures, transmittal letter, and appendixes. These have to be prepared according to a set standard,
       which will be presented in a later chapter.
   Production: The technical report should be typed or printed out neatly. If graphics are taped in, the whole report
    must be photocopied, and the photocopy handed in (not the original with the taped-in graphics). The report must
    be bound in some way.
   Length: The report should be at least 8 doublespaced typed or printed pages (using 1-inch margins), counting
    from introduction to conclusion. This is a minimum; a report of this length is rather skimpy. There is no real
    maximum length, other than what your time, energy, and stamina can handle. But remember that sheer weight
    does not equal quality (or better grade). If you get into a bind with a report project that would take too many
    pages, contact your instructor--there are numerous tricks we can use to cut it down to size.
   Technical content: You must design your report project in such a way that your poor technical-writing instructor
    has a chance to understand it--in other words, you must write for the nonspecialist. Also, at some point, you may
    get concerned about the technical accuracy of your information. Remember that this is a writing course, not a
    course in engineering, nursing, science, electronics, or the like. Make a good-faith effort to get the facts right, but
    don't go overboard.
Checklist for the Technical Report

Use the following questions to ensure that your technical report is structured properly according to our
specifications:
     Do you include all the required components in the required order, for example, transmittal letter,
      followed by title page, followed by figure list, and so on?
     Do you address your report to a real or realistic audience that has a genuine need for your report?
      Do you identify in the introduction what background the audience needs to read and understand
      your report?
     Does your report contain specific, factual detail focused on the purpose of the report and the needs
      of the audience and aimed at their level of understanding?
     Does your report accomplish its purpose? Is that purpose clearly stated in the introduction?
     Does your report use information sources and do you properly document them?
     Does your report use the format for headings that is standard for this course?
     Does your report use the format for lists that is standard for this course?
     Does your report use graphics and tables? Does your report use the format for graphics and tables
      that is standard for this course? Specifically, are your figure titles (captions) to our class
      specifications?
     Is page 1 of your introduction designed according to the standard for this course?
   Does every new section (which starts with a first-level heading) start on a new page? Have you
    check for widowed headings (headings that start at the very bottom of a page)? stacked headings
    (two or more consecutive headings without intervening text)? lone headings (a single heading
    within a section)? parallelism in the phrasing of headings?
   Does the title page of your report include a descriptive abstract, and is it written according to the
    specifications in the chapter on abstracts?
   Do you include an informative abstract in your report; is it positioned properly in relation to the
    other report components; and is it written according to the specifications in the chapter on abstracts?
    Specifically, does your informative abstract summarize the key facts and conclusions of your report
    rather than act as just another introduction or descriptive abstract?
   Does the introduction of your report include the elements necessary in good introductions, such as
    audience, overview, purpose? Do you avoid the problem of having too much background in the
    introduction, or having an introduction that is all background?
Online Technical Writing: Other Types of Technical Reports
For the final report, you can write one of (or even a combination) of several different types of reports. These choices are
not meant to be restrictive, but to indicate a range of possibilities. If there is some other type of report that you know
about and want to write, get with your instructor to discuss it.
      Organizational policies and procedures. These are the operating documents for organizations; they contain rules
       and regulations on how the organization and its members are expected to perform. Policies and procedures are
       like instructions, but they go much further.

      Feasibility, evaluation, recommendation reports. This group of similar reports does things like compare several
       options against a set of requirements and recommend one; considers an idea (plan, project) in terms of its
       "feasibility," in terms of some combination of its technical, economical, social practicality or possibility; passes
       judgement on the worth or value of a thing by comparing it to a set of requirements, or criteria.

      Technical background reports. This type is the hardest one to define but the one that most people write. It focuses
       on a technical topic, provides a certain background on that topic for a specific set of readers who have specific
       needs for it. This report does not supply instructions, nor does it supply recommendations in any systematic way,
       nor does it report new and original data.

      Primary research reports. This type presents findings and interpretation from laboratory or field research.
      Business plans. This type is a proposal to start a new business.
      Technical specifications. This type presents descriptive and operational details on a new product.
Technical Background Reports
The technical background report is hard to define--it's not a lot of things, but it's hard to say what it is. It
doesn't provide step-by-step directions on how to do something the way that instructions do. It does not
formally provide recommendations the way that feasibility reports do. It does not report data from
original research and draw conclusions the way that primary research reports do.

So what does the technical background report do? It provides information on a technical topic but in such
a way that is adapted for a particular audience that has specific needs for that information. Imagine a
topic like this: renal disease and therapy. A technical background report on this topic would not dump out
a ten-ton textbook containing everything you could possibly say about it. It would select information
about the topic suited to a specific group of readers who had specific needs and uses for the information.
Imagine the audience was a group of engineers bidding on a contract to do part of the work for a dialysis
clinic. Yes, they need to know about renal disease and its therapy, but only to the extent that it has to do
with their areas of expertise. Such a background report might also include some basic discussion of renal
disease and its treatment, but no more than what the engineers need to do their work and to interact with
representatives of the clinic.
Typical contents and organization of technical background reports. Unlike most of the other
reports discussed in this course guide, the technical background report does not have a common set of
contents. Because it focuses on a specific technical topic for specific audiences who have specific needs
or uses for the information, it grabs at whatever type of contents it needs to get the job done. You use a
lot of intuition to plan this type of report. For example, with the report on renal disease and treatment,
you'd probably want to discuss what renal disease is, what causes it, how it is treated, and what kinds of
technologies are involved in the treatment. If you don't fully trust your intuition, use a checklist like the
following:

     Definitions--Define the potentially unfamiliar terms associated with the topic. Write extended
      definitions if the terms are key terms or if they are particularly difficult to explain.
     Causes--Explain what causes are related to the topic. For example, with the renal disease topic,
      what causes the disease?
     Effects--Explain what are the consequences, results, or effects associated with the topic. With the
      renal disease topic, what happens to people with the disease; what effects do the various treatments
      have?
     Types--Discuss the different types or categories associated with the topic. For example, are there
      different types of renal disease; are there different categories of treatment?
     Historical background--Discuss relevant history related to the topic. Discuss people, events, and
      past theories related to the topic.
     Processes--Discuss mechanical, natural, human-controlled processes related to the topic. Explain
      step by step how the process occurs. For example, what are the phases of the renal disease cycle;
      what typically happens to a person with a specific form of the disease?
     Descriptions--Provide information on the physical details of things related to the topic. Provide
      information about size, shape, color, weight, and so on.
     Comparisons--Compare the topic, or some aspect of it, to something similar or something familiar.
      With the renal disease example, you could compare renal disease to some other disease; the
      treatment to some treatment; the functions of the kidney to something familiar (an analogy); or even
      the treatment to something familiar, for example, the filter system for a swimming pool.
     Applications--Explore how some aspect of your topic can be used or applied. If it's some new
      technology, what are its applications?
     Advantages and disadvantages--Discuss the advantages or disadvantages of one or more aspects of
      your topic. In the renal disease topic, for example, what are the advantages of one treatment over
      another?
     Economic considerations--Discuss the costs of one or more aspects associated with your topic. How
      much does treatment for renal disease cost? How much does the equipment and personnel cost?
     Social, political, legal, ethical implications--Explore the implications or impact of your topic or
      some aspect of it in relation to social, political, legal, or ethical concerns. The renal disease example
      doesn't lend itself much to this area, but imagine the possibilities with a topic like cryogenics--
      suspended animation of human beings. Often, new technologies have profound impact in these
      areas.
     Problems, questions--What problems or questions are there associated with your report topic or
      some aspect of it?
     Solutions, answers--What solutions or answers can you offer on those problems or questions raised
      by your topic or some aspect of it?

There are many other items we could think up and add to a checklist like this, but maybe this is enough to
get you started planning the contents of your technical background report. And remember that each of
these checklist items may represent a full section in the report--not a sentence or two.
Primary Research Reports
Primary research report is our name for that kind of report that presents original research data--no matter
whether that data was generated in a laboratory or out in the "field." A secondary research report then
would be a report that presents information gained largely from printed information sources or from other
sources such as people.

You're probably already familiar with this type of report as the "lab report." The contents and
organization of this type of report have a basic logic: you present your data and conclusions, but also
present information on how you went about the experiment or survey. In other words, you enable the
reader to replicate (the fancy scientific word for repeat) your experiment, or at least, visualize quite
specifically how you went about it.

Typical contents of primary research reports. To enable readers to replicate your experiment or
survey, you provide information like the following (each normally in its own section):

     Introduction--The introduction to the primary research report needs to do what any good
      introduction to a report needs to do--get the readers ready to read the report. It may provide some
      background, but not more than a paragraph or two in a one- to two-page introduction. Some of the
      common elements of the introduction to a primary research report, such as the background or the
      purpose, can be handled in the introduction. If they require a lot of discussion, however, they may
      need their own sections.
     Problem, background--One of the first things to do, either in the introduction, or in a separate
      section of its own, is to discuss the situation that has led to the research work. For example, you
      may find that there is something questionable about a commonly accepted theory; you may have
    noticed some phenomenon that could be used to advantage, and so on. Explain this somewhere
    toward the beginning of a primary research report.
   Purpose, objectives, scope--Also toward the beginning of this type of report discuss what you
    intended to do in the research project--what were your objectives? Also, explain the scope of your
    work--what were you not trying to do?
   Review of literature--After you've established the basis for the project, summarize the literature
    relevant to it--for example, books, journal articles, and encyclopedias. If you are doing a study on
    grammar-checking software, what books or articles have already been written on that subject? What
    do they have to say about the merits of this kind of software? All you do is summarize this literature
    briefly and enable readers to go have a look at it by providing the full bibliographic citation at the
    end of your report.
   Materials, equipment, facilities--Remember that one of your goals in writing this type of report is to
    enable the reader to replicate the experiment or survey you performed. Key to this is the discussion
    of the equipment and facilities you used in your research. Describe things in detail, providing brand
    names, model numbers, sizes, and other such specifications.
   Theory, methods, procedures--To enable readers to replicate your project, you must also explain the
    procedures or methods you used. This discussion can be step by step: "first, I did this, then I did
    that...." Theory and method refer more to the intellectual or conceptual framework of your project.
    These explain why you used the procedures that you used.
   Results, findings, data--Critical to any primary research report is the data that you collect. You
    present it in various tables, charts, and graphs. These can go in the body of your report, or in
    appendixes if they are so big that they interrupt the flow of your discussion. Of course, some results
    or findings may not be presentable as tables, charts, or graphs. In these cases, you just discuss it in
      paragraphs. In any case, you do not add interpretation to this presentation of data. You merely
      present the data, without trying to explain it.
     Discussion, conclusions, recommendations--In primary research reports, you interpret or discuss
      your findings in a section separate from the one where you present the data. Now's the time to
      explain your data, to interpret it. This section, or area of the report, is also the place to make
      recommendations or state ideas for further research.
     Bibliography--The ideal of the primary research report is build upon or add to the knowledge in a
      particular area. It's the vehicle by which our knowledge advances for a specific topic. Your primary
      research report rests on top of all the work done by other researchers on the same topic. For that
      reason, you must list the sources of information you used or consulted in your project. This list
      occurs at the end of the report.
As for the organization of a primary research report, the typical contents just listed are arranged in an
actual primary research report in just about the same order they were just discussed. Loosely, it is a
chronological order. First, you discuss set-up issues such as the problem and objectives, then you discuss
the procedures, then the data resulting from those procedures, then your conclusions based upon that data.

This type of report varies greatly in terms of how long the typical sections are, whether they get
combined with other sections, and what they are called (their headings).
Business Plans
A business plan is very much like a proposal, except for at least one big difference. The prospectus seeks
to start a new business or significantly expand an existing business. A proposal, on the other hand, seeks
approval to do a specific project. For example, a business plan might seek funding and other support to
start a software company to create computer games. A proposal, on the other hand, might bid to do the
development work for some specific computer game.

Common sections in business plans. Many of the elements of the plans resemble those of the
proposal--particularly the qualifications and background sections. Remember that these sections are only
typical and not necessarily in any required order. For your plan, you'll need to think about the best
sequencing of the sections and about other sections that might also be necessary.

     Product or service to be offered--One of the most important sections of the business plan is the
      description of the actual product or service to be offered by your company. If it is a description of a
      product--a physical object--you need to use the techniques for technical description. If you are
      going to offer a service, explain it, and take readers on a step-by-step tour of how the service will be
      handled.
     Technical background on the product or service--If your product or service involves technologies
      or technical processes potentially unfamiliar to your readers, explain these. Remember that business
      plans often go to nonspecialists who, despite their lack of technical expertise, have the investment
      funds or the legal understanding to get your business going.
     Market for the product or service--Critical also to any business plan is the exploration of the
      existing marketplace into which your product or service fits. What other companies exist that offer
      the same thing you plan to offer? How much business do they do? How are they different from each
      other? How will your business differ from them?
   Process by which the product or service is produced--If applicable, explain how the product or
    service will be produced. Explain how the proposed business will operate on a day-to-day basis.
   Facilities and personnel needed for the operation--Plan to discuss the facilities (storefronts,
    warehouses, production facilities, vehicles) your business will require as well as the personnel that
    will be needed.
   Projected revenues from the operation--Of obvious importance in any business plan is the
    discussion of the revenues you project for your business. If you know the estimate of total revenues
    for the market area in which you plan to operate, what percentage do you explain to win?
    Obviously, in your first few years, you may operate at a loss--at what point in time do you project to
    break even?
   Funding necessary for startup and operation--The plan should also discuss the funding you'll need
    to get the business started as well as the operating costs--the funding needed to run the business on
    a daily basis.
   Legal issues related to the proposed business--Your business plan may also need to discuss your
    business, its products, or its services in relation to government regulations--for example,
    environmental restrictions.
   Qualifications and background of the personnel--Important too is the section that presents your
    qualifications to start and operate the business you are proposing. Of course, "you" can mean a
    number of people with whom you are working to start the business. This section can be very much
    like a collection of resumes, although you want to write an introduction in which you describe your
    group's qualifications as a whole.
   Discussion of feasibility and investment potential--You'll want to include in your plan a discussion
    of the likelihood of the success of your business. Obviously, you believe that it will be a success,
    but you must find a way to support this belief with facts and conclusions in order to convince your
    readers. Also, you must discuss what sort of return on investment readers can expect.
     Investment offering--And finally, you may need to present what kinds of investment apparatus you
      are actually offering.

In planning your business plan, remember that you try to provide whatever information the audience may
need to consider your idea. Your goal is to convince them you have a good idea and to encourage them to
invest in it (or to approve it in some way). It's okay to provide marginal information--information you're
not quite sure that readers will want. After all, you section off the parts of a business plan with headings;
readers can skip over sections they are not interested in.

Format for business plans. You can use the format for the formal report, the format for proposals, or
some combination of the two. Business plans, even those for small operations, can run well over 15
pages--in which case you'll want to bind the plan. You'll also need a cover letter--examples of this are
also in the section on report formatting.

As you plan the format of your business plan, you'll want to think about designing it so that readers can
find and read essential information quickly. This means setting up an abstract, but calling it "Executive
Summary" or "Prospectus Overview."

Also plan to group similar sections. In the preceding section that lists the various kinds of information to
include in a plan, some of suggestions should be combined--for example, the sections on financial aspects
of the proposed business.

And finally, make use of appendixes for unwieldy, bulky information. Enable readers to quickly find the
main sections of the plan, without having to wade through tables and charts that go on for pages and
pages.
Technical Specifications
Specifications are descriptions of products or product requirements. More broadly, they can provide
details for the design, manufacture, testing, installation, and use of a product. You typically see
specifications in the documentation that comes in the package with certain kinds of products, for
example, CD players or computers. These describe the key technical characteristics of the item. But
specifications are also written as a way of "specifying" the construction and operational characteristics of
a thing. They are then used by people who actually construct the thing or go out and attempt to purchase
it. When you write specifications, accuracy, precision of detail, and clarity are critical. Poorly written
specifications can cause a range of problems and lead to lawsuits.
For these reasons then, specifications have a particular style, format, and organization.
     Make every effort to find out what the specific requirements are for format, style, contents, and
      organization. If they are not documented, collect a big pile specifications written by or for your
      company, and study them for characteristics like those described in the following.
     Use two-column lists or tables to lists specific details. If the purpose is to indicate details such as
      dimensions, materials, weight, tolerances, and frequencies, regular paragraph-style writing may be
      unnecessary.
     Make sure that each specification receives its own number-letter designation. In sentence-style
      specifications, make sure each specific requirement has its own separate sentence.
     Use the decimal numbering system for each individual specification. This facilitates cross-
      referencing.
     Use either the open (performance) style or the closed restrictive style, depending on the
      requirements of the job. In the open or performance style, you can specify what the product or
    component should do, that is, its performance capabilities. In the closed style, you specify exactly
    what it should be or consist of.
   Cross-reference existing specifications whenever possible. Various government agencies as well as
    trade and professional associations publish specifications standards. You can refer to these
    standards rather than include the actual specifications details.
   Use specific, concrete language that identifies as precisely as possible what the product or
    component should be or do. Avoid words that are ambiguous--words that can be interpreted in more
    than one way. Use technical jargon the way it is used in the trade or profession.
   Test your specifications by putting yourself in the role of a bumbling contractor--or even an
    unscrupulous one. What are the ways a careless or incompetent individual could misread your
    specifications? Could someone willfully misread your specifications in order to cut cost, time, and
    quality? Obviously, no set of specifications can ultimately be "foolproof" or "shark-proof," but you
    must try to make them as clear and unambiguous as possible.
   For specifications to be used in design, manufacturing, construction, or procurement, use "shall" to
    indicate requirements. In specifications writing, "shall" is understood as indicating a requirement.
    (See the outline-style specifications in Figure C-1 for examples of this style of writing.)
   Provide numerical specifications in both words and symbols: for example, "the distance between
    the two components shall be three centimeters (3 cm)."
   Writing style in specifications can be very terse: incomplete sentences are acceptable as well as the
    omission of functions words such as articles and conjunctions that are understood.
   Exercise great caution with pronouns and relational or qualifying phrases. Make sure there is no
    doubt about words such as "it," "they," "which," and "that" refer to. Watch out for sentences
    containing a list of two or more items followed by some descriptive phrase--does the descriptive
      phrase refer to all the list items or just one? In cases like these, you may have to take a wordier
      approach for the sake of clarity.
     Use words and phrasing that have become standard in similar specifications over the years. Past
      usage has proven them reliable. Avoid words and phrases that are known not to hold up in lawsuits.
     Make sure your specifications are complete--put yourself in the place of those who need your
      specifications; make sure you cover everything they will need.


Contents and Organization of Specifications. Organization is critical in specifications--readers
need to be able to find one or a collection of specific details. To facilitate the process of locating
individual specifications, use headings, lists, tables, and identifying numbers as discussed previously. But
a certain organization of the actual contents is also standard.
     General description--Describe the product, component, or program first in general terms--
      administrative details about its cost, start and completion dates, overall description of the project,
      scope of the specifications (what you are not covering), anything that is of a general nature and does
      not fit in the part-by-part descriptions in the following.
     Part-by-part description--In the main body, present specifications part by part, element by element,
      trade by trade--whatever is the logical, natural, or conventional way of doing it.
     General-to-specific order--Wherever applicable, arrange specifications from general to specific.


Graphics in Specifications. In specifications, use graphics wherever they enable you to convey
information more effectively. For example, in the specifications for a cleanroom for production of
integrated circuits, drawings, diagrams, and schematics convey some of the information much more
succinctly and effectively than sentences and paragraphs.
Online Technical Writing: Resources for Writing Business
Plans
A business plan is a document used to start a new business or get funding for a business that is changing
in some significant way. Business plans are important documents for business partners who need to agree
upon and document their plans, government officials who may need to approve aspects of the plan, and
of course potential investors such as banks or private individuals who may decide to fund the business or
its expansion.

If you are enrolled in a course associated with this page, you are in a writing course, not a business
course. Our focus is on good writing, well-designed documents, documents that accomplish their
purpose, and documents that meet common expectations as to their content, organization, and format. A
business plan is obviously an important application of writing and one that may contain substantial
technical information about the business operations or products. That's why it's a good option for the final
project in a technical- writing course.

You can write a business plan if you actually are trying to start a business or if you'd merely like to do
some constructive daydreaming about a business you'd like to start. Beware, however, if you are just
playing around with the business-startup notion: the business plan you write for this course must be every
bit as serious, realistic, specific, factual, well-researched, and well-thought-out as a business plan for a
real situation.
Business plans can be very large documents containing information that you may have no way of getting.
Work with your instructor to reach an agreement on the scope of the business plan you write. Remember
too that your instructor is probably not a professional business-startup consultant and probably won't be
able to help you on the finer points of planning a business.

Here are some additional resources on business plans:

     Business Plan Software, Samples, and Strategy. Made available by Center for Business Planning.
     Business Plan Guide. Made available by Miller Consulting, this site contains good information on
      business plans plus numerous links to other sites on the same topic.
     SOHO Guidebook: A Practical Guide to Starting, Running and Growing a Small Business.
      Produced by CCH Incorporated, this guidebook contains a wealth of information; for the purposes
      of business and technical writing courses, see the links on business plan documents, in particular.
     Teneric Business and Marketing Plans. This is a commercial venture that wants to write business
      plans for you or teach you how, but it does include a sample business plan and a template for
      business plans.
     Americas Business Consulting. Offers business plan development; has links to potentially useful
      related sites.