Jolie Hollywood's highest-earning actress
Posted Mon Dec 8, 2008 9:11am AEDT Oscar-winner Angelina Jolie has proven again how handsomely it pays to combine gunwielding action with serious roles, as she topped The Hollywood Reporter's 2008 list of highest-earning actresses. But salaries are plummeting for top actresses and still lag the earnings of leading men, the trade paper says. Jolie, 33, earned $US15 million ($23 million) for the action movie Wanted this year and according to the paper, she could make $US20 million to star in a possible sequel. Jolie also earned big bucks playing dramatic roles in 2007's A Mighty Heart and in this year's Changeling. The mother of six and partner of actor Brad Pitt last month talked about eventually fading away from acting to spend more time with her family. Oscar-winner Julia Roberts, 41, claimed the number two spot after a long absence from the screen. She made more than $US15 million for Duplicity, due out next year. Reese Witherspoon, 32, who topped the female list last year after winning an Oscar for her role in the 2005 movie Walk The Line, dropped to number three. She earned $US14 million for appearing in the comedy hit Four Holidays, which opened last week. Cameron Diaz, Katherine Heigl, Kate Hudson, Anne Hathaway and Jennifer Aniston rounded out the list. Big stars such as Halle Berry and Nicole Kidman - both Oscar winners - are no longer able to earn $US10 million a movie, according to the paper. Actors too are earning less, with the exception of Will Smith, who is riding high with up to $US25 million per movie.
India
Broadcast Media
The national television (Doordarshan) and radio (All India Radio, or Akashwani) networks are state-owned and managed by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Their news reporting customarily presents the government's point of view. For example, coverage of the 1989 election campaign blatantly favored the government of Rajiv Gandhi, and autonomy of the electronic media became a political issue. V.P. Singh's National Front government sponsored the Prasar Bharati (Indian Broadcasting) Act, which Parliament considered in 1990, to provide greater autonomy to Doordarshan and All India Radio. The changes that resulted were limited. The bill provided for the establishment of an autonomous corporation to run Doordarshan and All India Radio. The corporation was to operate under a board of governors to be in charge of appointments and policy and a broadcasting council to respond to complaints. However, the legislation required that the corporation prepare and submit its budget within the framework of the central budget and stipulated that the personnel of the new broadcasting corporation be career civil servants to facilitate continued government control. In the early 1990s, increasing competition from television broadcasts transmitted via satellite appeared the most effective manner of limiting the progovernment bias of the government-controlled electronic media (see Telecommunications, ch. 6). Since the 1980s, India has experienced a rapid proliferation of television broadcasting that has helped shape popular culture and the course of politics. Although the first television program was broadcast in 1959, the expansion of television did not begin in earnest until the extremely popular telecast of the Ninth Asian Games, which were held in New Delhi in 1982. Realizing the popular appeal and consequent influence of television broadcasting, the government undertook an expansion that by 1990 was planned to provide television access to 90 percent of the population. In 1993, about 169 million people were estimated to have watched Indian television each week, and, by 1994, it was reported that there were some 47 million households with televisions. There also is a growing selection of satellite transmission and cable services available (see Television, ch. 6). Television programming was initially kept tightly under the control of the government, which embarked on a self-conscious effort to construct and propagate a cultural idea of the Indian nation. This goal is especially clear in the broadcasts of such megaseries as the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata . In addition to the effort at nation-building, the politicians of India's ruling party have not hesitated to use television to build political support. In fact, the political abuse of Indian television led to demands to increase the autonomy of Doordarshan; these demands ultimately resulted in support for the Prasar Bharati Act. The 1990s have brought a radical transformation of television in India. Transnational satellite broadcasting made its debut in January 1991, when owners of satellite dishes-initially mostly at major hotels--began receiving Cable News Network (CNN) coverage
of the Persian Gulf War. Three months later, Star TV began broadcasting via satellite. Its fare initially included serials such as "The Bold and the Beautiful" and MTV programs. Satellite broadcasting spread rapidly through India's cities as local entrepreneurs erected dishes to receive signals and transmitted them through local cable systems. After its October 1992 launch, Zee TV offered stiff competition to Star TV. However, the future of Star TV was bolstered by billionaire Rupert Murdock, who acquired the network for US$525 million in July 1993. CNN International, part of the Turner Broadcasting System, was slated to start broadcasting entertainment programs, including top Hollywood films, in 1995. Competition from the satellite stations brought radical change to Doordarshan by cutting its audience and threatening its advertising revenues at a time when the government was pressuring it to pay for expenditures from internal revenues. In response, Doordarshan decided in 1993 to start five new channels in addition to its original National Channel. Programming was radically transformed, and controversial news shows, soap operas, and coverage of high-fashion events proliferated. Of the new Doordarshan channels, however, only the Metro Channel, which carries MTV music videos and other popular shows, has survived in the face of the new trend for talk programs that engage in a potpourri of racy topics.
The Rise of Civil Society
Political participation in India has been transformed in many ways since the 1960s. New social groups have entered the political arena and begun to use their political resources to shape the political process. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, previously excluded from politics because of their position at the bottom of India's social hierarchy, have begun to take full advantage of the opportunities presented by India's democracy. Women and environmentalists constitute new political categories that transcend traditional distinctions. The spread of social movements and voluntary organizations has shown that despite the difficulties of India's political parties and state institutions, India's democratic tendency continues to thrive. An important aspect of the rise of civil society is the proliferation of voluntary or nongovernmental organizations. Estimates of their number ranged from 50,000 to 100,000 in 1993. To some extent, the rise of voluntary organizations has been sponsored by the Indian state. For instance, the central government's Seventh Five-Year Plan of fiscal years (FY--see Glossary) 1985-89 recognized the contributions of voluntary organizations in accelerating development and substantially increased their funding. A 1987 survey of 1,273 voluntary agencies reported that 47 percent received some form of funding from the central government. Voluntary organizations also have thrived on foreign donations, which in 1991-92 contributed more than US$400 million to some 15,000 organizations. Some nongovernmental organizations cooperate with the central government in a manner that augments its capacity to implement public policy, such as poverty alleviation, for example, in a decentralized manner. Other nongovernmental organizations also serve as watchdogs, attempting to pressure government agencies to uphold the spirit of the state's laws and implement policies in accord with their stated
objectives. Nongovernmental organizations also endeavor to raise the political consciousness of various social groups, encouraging them to demand their rights and challenge social inequities. Finally, some social groups serve as innovators, experimenting with new approaches to solving social problems. Beginning in the 1970s, activists began to form broad-based social movements, which proved powerful advocates for interests that they perceived as neglected by the state and political parties. Perhaps the most powerful has been the farmers' movement, which has organized hundreds of thousands of demonstrators in New Delhi and has pressured the government for higher prices on agricultural commodities and more investment in rural areas. Members of Scheduled Castes led by the Dalit Panthers have moved to rearticulate the identity of former Untouchables. Women from an array of diverse organizations now interact in conferences and exchange ideas in order to define and promote women's issues. Simultaneously, an environmental movement has developed that has attempted to compel the government to be more responsive to environmental concerns and has attempted to redefine the concept of "development" to include respect for indigenous cultures and environmental sustainability. With its highly competitive elections, relatively independent judiciary, boisterous media, and thriving civil society, India continues to possess one of the most democratic political systems of all developing countries. Nevertheless, Indian democracy is under stress. Political power within the Indian state has become increasingly centralized at a time when India's civil society has become mobilized along lines that reflect the country's remarkable social diversity. The country's political parties, which might aggregate the country's diverse social interests in a way that would ensure the responsiveness of state authority, are in crisis. The Congress (I) has been in a state of decline, as reflected in the erosion of its traditional coalition of support and the implication of Congress (I) governments in a series of scandals. The party has failed to generate an enlightened leadership that might rejuvenate it and replace the increasingly discredited Nehruvian socialism with a novel programmatic appeal. The Congress (I)'s split in May 1995 added a new impediment to efforts to reinvigorate the party. The BJP, although it has a stronger party organization, in 1995 had yet to find a way to transcend the limits of its militant Hindu nationalism and fashion a program that would appeal to diverse social groups and enable it to build a majority coalition in India. The Janata Dal continued to suffer from lack of leadership, inadequate resources, and incessant factionalism. As its bases of power shrink, it stood in danger of being reduced to a party with only a few regional strongholds. As regional groupings and members of the lower echelons of India's caste system become more assertive, regional and caste parties may play a more prominent role in India's political system. At this point, however, it is difficult to envision how they might stabilize India's political system. The unresponsiveness of India's political parties and government has encouraged the Indian public to mobilize through nongovernmental organizations and social movements. The consequent development of India's civil society has made Indians less confident of the transformative power of the state and more confident of the power of the individual
and local community. This development is shifting a larger share of the initiative for resolving India's social problems from the state to society. Fashioning party and state institutions that will accommodate the diverse interests that are now mobilized in Indian society is the major challenge confronting the Indian polity in the 1990s.
* * *
Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr., and Stanley A. Kochanek's India: Government and Politics in a Developing Nation provides a thorough and insightful overview of Indian politics. The second edition of Paul R. Brass's The Politics of India since Independence is a useful account written by a scholar with detailed knowledge of India's grass roots. Atul Kohli's Democracy and Discontent is the definitive study of India's growing crisis of governability, with special emphasis on the decay of Indian political parties. State Against Democracy by Rajni Kothari, India's eminent political scientist, is a critique of the Indian state as well as a hopeful analysis of the rise of civil society. Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph's In Pursuit of Lakshmi offers an illuminating account of the politics of India's development. Dominance and State Power in Modern India , edited by Francine R. Frankel and M.S.A. Rao, is a study of the changing relationship between caste and politics that describes the diversity of politics in India's states and documents the rise of the Backward Classes. Paul R. Brass's Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison includes observations about the dynamics of ethnic politics in India. India Votes , edited by Harold A. Gould and Sumit Ganguly, offers an account of India's elections in 1989 and 1991. David Butler, Ashok Lahiri, and Prannoy Roy's India Decides: Elections 1952-1991 includes copious data about election outcomes. India Today , India's leading weekly news magazine, offers excellent investigative journalism and news analysis. Economic and Political Weekly includes trenchant analyses of India's political economy. Asian Survey regularly publishes articles analyzing Indian politics. Seminar provides monthly symposia that gather analyses from leading Indian experts on problems confronting Indian society. The "clari.world.asia.india" electronic newsgroup provides releases from Reuters and the Associated Press that are an excellent way to keep up with current events. (For further information and complete citations, see Bibliography.)
fmcg marketing - TV with a touch of spice.
Revolution Online 13-Dec-00 Ethnic food firm Sharwood's is putting £5 million behind its first TV campaign in three years - and its first ever on iTV. The company's Jonathan Gatwood and Caroline Clarke tell Charlotte Goddard why interactivity is an important part of the brand's relaunch. When we think of Christmas, the food which springs to mind is turkey, maybe followed by Christmas pudding, or mince pies. Curry and stir fry are very far down many people's lists of festive foods. But ethnic food company Sharwood's, which specialises in sauces and pastes for Indian, Chinese and south-east Asian cuisine, is putting a strong emphasis on its new three-month interactive campaign, which is set to break in the second week of December and run until well into the New Year.
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The campaign, which marks not only the company's first step into interactive advertising but also the firm's return to TV after a three-year absence, will run on ntl's interactive TV platform. The TV ads, which promote Sharwood's web site (www.sharwoods.com) are created by TBWA, while the interactive element, which includes banner ads and a microsite, has been created by digital agency Zinc's online media-buying arm Zn Space. Zinc also created the Sharwood's UK web site and is working on a global site which will extend the brand to the rest of Europe as well as the US and Australia. "The ethnic food market is worth an annual quarter of a billion pounds in the UK, and Sharwood's is the market leader," says Sharwood's head of marketing Jonathan Gatwood. "We have to maintain that position, so we are ramping up our marketing. Our strategy for the next three years is to build a more engaging brand personality which will act as a route into the product range. So far, we have used posters and online communication. This year the agenda will move forward with a £5 million above-the-line campaign - this is the largest ever spend behind the brand and coincides with a total relaunch, including new packaging." All aspects of the campaign, including web site, TV ads and packaging, follow the same
creative theme, with the various agencies working closely together to develop a coherent brand message - something which is becoming increasingly necessary in this age of everfragmenting media. "It is important to display the same values in every medium, particular on the web site, the TV and the packs themselves, which are our main point of contact with our consumers," says Sharwood's brand manager Caroline Clarke. "A brand manager has always been a bit of a jack of all trades, but now we rely even more on working with specific partners or agencies," agrees Gatwood. "That means you have to have to have a very focused strategy from the word go - it is easy to go a bit off-beam, but you can't be driven by technology for technology's sake," he adds. "We have days in which all the agencies we work with come together to discuss the brand and what they are doing to promote it." The campaign microsite, like the web site, is divided into sections relating to Sharwood's three regional focuses - India, South-East Asia and China, with deep rich colours being used for each segment to echo the different colours used on the packs - the China segment is described as "Malcolm McLaren orange". Zinc's group account director Justin Thomas Copeland says that he is very aware of the charge made against current interactive TV ads: that they are merely exercises in data capture with no proper attempts at brand-building. "We don't just want to use interactive television to confront people with some recipes and grab their details," he explains. "What we want to do is try to emphasise the diversity of the Sharwood's brand, which is about passion and discovery. We aim to encourage those consumers who are not traditionally Sharwood's customers to buy into those brand values of adventure and passion. So this campaign really has three objectives - it's about brand-building, sales promotion, and data capture." The brand-building is tied into the colours and imagery used, and also in an interactive, instant-win competition which echoes the TV quiz show Who Wants To Be A Millionaire? The questions and prizes have been carefully chosen to reflect the adventurous side of Sharwood's, with two free Virgin flights to anywhere in the world on offer. "We wanted to make the competition as easy as possible and also include a comedy element, like the early questions on Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?," says Clarke. One example of the brain-stretching questions is: What is the name of the curry created for Moghul emperors? Quite difficult until you see the possible answers: Korma, Karma, Norma. "The idea of the quiz is that people are going to be in a passive state over Christmas, idling around, and they want to be entertained," says Sarah Macmillan, account director at Zinc.
"This could well be the way that a lot of campaigns work in the future," says Gatwood. "There is an interesting change in the advertising mindset going on. We have to get our minds out of broadcast advertising and into permission-based marketing. At the moment, ads are entertaining, but pretty light on content. Ultimately, however, users will be controlling advertising content much more, and successful campaigns will be high on content, high on awareness." Those who do not win the flights win a coupon, which is posted to them. "A lot of people navigate using the remote control rather than a keyboard, so we have made sure that they only have to enter their postcode - just six characters," says Gatwood. "It's asking a lot of people to get them to go through and enter all their details, so people have tended to drop out at that stage in the process." Sharwood's also takes the email addresses of all those who enter the competition. The Yuletide focus of the marketing push is very important: not because of any association Sharwood's might have with Christmas, but because the company predicts a huge increase in the number of people using ntl over the holiday. "The timing of this campaign is tactical and the Christmas market is key. We want to latch on to the new-user upsurge e over Christmas," says Julia McNally, director of Zn Space. "Our first idea was to become a content provider, but that would have represented a large investment for a first campaign. Also, we know that the first thing which people will do with their interactive TV is check their email, so we have bought a number of banner ads on the email pages of ntl." Sharwood's and Zinc researched all the interactive TV platforms before concluding that ntl would be the one most suited to the needs of their campaign. "We looked at ntl, Telewest, ONdigital and Open before deciding that ntl offered the greatest measurability and therefore the greatest amount of learning experience," says McNally. "Open has a broad audience, but we couldn't measure the results of the campaign, and ONdigital and Telewest are not so interactive." The downside of running an interactive campaign on ntl is that, because the firm does not own the broadcast streams which it delivers, there can be no linking through to the microsite from the Sharwood's TV ad which hypes the interactivity of the firm. "With Open, Sky owns its own programming and so can link to the interactive section through broadcast ads. But ntl is just the service provider," says McNally. Links to the microsite are, therefore, through banner ads appearing throughout the ntl network, although Sharwood's and Zinc expect the best results to come from the email page. "The campaign will run across the whole network for the first two weeks, and we will constantly test it and push the ads to where the best response is coming from. There are 10,000 coupons on offer, and our target is to get two or three times that number playing the competition," says Thomas Copeland. "We have bought 450,000 impressions, with a frequency cap of three per household,"
says McNally. "It means that the impressions will go a lot further, as does the fact that we are using Open AdStream to deliver 100,000 impressions each week." McNally says that ntl has 190,000 subscribers and a 20 per cent clickthrough rate, which can be ascribed to the fact that users are in the mood for entertainment, rather than on a search for information like their internet siblings. "Interactive television users are not paying for their time," agrees Gatwood. "It's their TV time. You don't time yourself when you are watching TV." Sharwood's does, however, plan to measure whether there are any spikes in access to the microsite, such as, for example,at the time when the Sharwood's TV ad is showing. Users of ntl's interactive section do have the TV constantly playing in the corner of the screen, so an ad might drive them to explore the site. Planning and buying ad space on interactive TV demands a different mentality to the traditional TV format, in which the most expensive slots go with the most popular programmes. Interactive TV throws up a question - won't people be reluctant to leave the main broadcast section during peak time, even though the TV remains on in the corner? So, when it comes to banner ads, maybe the best time slots are the least-popular broadcast times? At the moment, no one really knows the answer. "We are going to keep a close eye on shifts and spikes in site access and adjust our banners accordingly," says McNally. "It might be a good idea to weigh banners heavily around certain programmes such as cookery shows," says Gatwood. "At the beginning of the campaign, the banners will not appear first thing in the morning, they are more weighed to evening, because with Sharwood's Online we tested different times of day when people interacted with the brand and found that evening was the most popular. But it might be that people have plenty of time to play with the TV in the daytime." Gatwood is not worried about the fact that interactive communication is limited to one person in each household. "A one-to-one dialogue with consumers is the ultimate aim of any marketer, but even if a household has four adults, you only need a dialogue with one person in the house," he says. Gatwood views the current campaign as a test-phase which will feed into to further interactive TV ventures. "We have a web site, but interactive TV is really the future for us," he says. But he is determined that the next campaign will be a lot smarter than this one, which is, he admits, about learning about the platform as much as it is about marketing. "We use profile questions to segment our audience into different categories according to the level of their investment in the cooking process," he says. "Convenience people who can't cook won't cook; scratch cooks who love the whole process of preparing food and want authenticity - if they haven't heard of something, they think it will be great - and the pragmatists, who are lapsed scratch cooks or convenience people
who have middled out." "Interactive TV will help us to be smarter about segmentation. The next level is really range-based advertising, targeting the right sector for each product directly, whereas this campaign aims to promote the whole brand," says Gatwood. "For example, pastes which have to be made up into sauces might be aimed at the scratch cooks; sauces which need to be combined with vegetables might be aimed at the pragmatists; and all-in-one products that just have to be heated up can be aimed at the convenience types." Fmcg brands have traditionally been a bit flummoxed by the internet, shoving up web sites for the sake of it and, with some exceptions, giving the impression of floundering in an information-based medium. However, with the advent of interactive TV, the fmcg brands seem to be in the vanguard of marketing activity, with Unilever and Procter & Gamble particularly active. And Sharwood's is determined to be at the vanguard of the vanguard. "Our web site is important to us," says Gatwood. "But interactive TV is definitely the way forward." Gatwood is confident that this specific campaign will reach the targeted amount of people - despite the Zinc and Sharwood's teams having to pile round to the house of Julia McNally, the only ntl subscriber among them, to actually see the platform they were buying into. "It felt like the early days of TV, when families crowded into each others front rooms to watch the Coronation," she says. And those of us who remember swapping black-andwhite portables for colour, and realising with amazement that the beginning of Bagpuss is actually sepia-toned while the rest is in colour, will know how powerful a new medium can be.
The world of broadcast media can be quite confusing for the uninitiated, because it covers a number of different kinds of broadcasting which are similar but different. And if anything it is becoming more confusing, because new technology has created new kinds of broadcasting, while also blurring the divide between the existing kinds. That said, the two principle areas of broadcasting remain TV and radio. Here we look at these two areas in turn, and at the different kinds of companies you might work for if you pursue a TV or radio career. By Reena Devi Sewraz
Television
Companies involved in TV programmes can be split roughly into two kinds… 1. The ‘broadcasters’ or ‘networks’ who transmit programmes via one or more TV channels. 2. The ‘programme makers’ or ‘producers’ who actually create and film the programmes and who then supply finished content to a broadcaster. So, for example, the programme maker called Endemol creates and films the reality series ‘Big Brother’. They then provide the finished programme to Channel 4, who then broadcast it to be enjoyed (or reviled) by the nation. Some companies, like ITV and the BBC, are both broadcasters and programme makers – they each have a division that produces programmes and a division that broadcasts them via TV channels like ITV1 and BBC1. However, not all programmes on ITV or the BBC‘s TV channels will have been made by their own programme makers, both will also buy programmes from other programme makers like Endemol.
Radio
Radio companies can also be split into broadcasters and programme makers, though in radio it is much more common for broadcasters to make most of their own programmes. A more common distinction made in radio is concerned with the content of the programmes that hit the airwaves of any one radio station. Using this distinction, there are two main kinds of radio station… 1. Music radio – stations like Capital Radio, Galaxy, Xfm and BBC Radio 1, where programmes consist in the main of music and chat about the music. 1. Speech radio – stations like LBC, BBC Radio 4 and BBC 5Live, where programmes include mainly news, debate, features and documentaries, and little or no music. Many radio companies own a number of radio stations, and will often own both music and speech stations (eg Global Radio own both Galaxy and LBC) though people who work for these companies will generally work on one or the other.
Commercial v Non-commercial
Another big distinction to be made of both TV and radio companies is whether they are ‘commercial broadcasters’ or ‘non-commercial broadcasters’.
Traditionally, by ‘non-commercial broadcaster’ people meant the BBC, which is, of course, paid for by the licence fee. All other broadcasters, who make money by selling advertising and sponsorship, are ‘commercial broadcasters’. That said, there are an increasing number of ‘community broadcasters’, especially in the radio world. These are local radio stations which are set up with community rather than commercial objectives. Although they may be funded by advertising sales, they are arguably quite different to traditional commercial broadcasters like Capital Radio or LBC.
Other parts of the broadcasting industry
Of course, with the exception of the BBC, TV and radio programmes aren’t the only things you’ll find when you turn on the television or radio. There are lots of adverts too. Those involved the the production of adverts for TV or radio are in someways working in broadcasting. However, we deal with these kinds of jobs in our guide to Working In Advertising.
Identifying and avoiding buzzwords and marketing speak. Posted January 12, 2009 at 3:31 pm by Josh Fahey 4 Comments What are you talking about?
We’ve all been guilty of using marketing/business speak. Those once clever words and phrases we use to make ourselves sound more important than we may actually be. In reality, marketing speak can make us sound pretty silly. Below are just a few words that
particularly irk me, but I’m sure you guys can think of many more. You may find that you use them. You may even be hooked on them, but it’s okay. You can wean yourself. Admitting you have a problem is the first step. With practice, you’ll not only stop using them, you’ll come to hate them. Eventually, when what you’re really trying to say isn’t covered up in good intentions and flowery language, people may find what you have to say much more interesting.
30 -7-09
A television advertisement or television commercial (often just commercial (US) or advert or ad (UK) or ad-film (India)) is a span of television programming produced and paid for by an organisation that conveys a message. Advertisement revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately owned television networks. The vast majority of television advertisements today consist of brief advertising spots, ranging in length from a few seconds to several minutes (as well as program-length infomercials). Advertisements of this sort have been used to sell every product imaginable over the years, from household products to goods and services, to political campaigns. The effect of television advertisements upon the viewing public has been so successful and so pervasive that in some countries, like the United States, it is considered impossible for a politician to wage a successful election campaign without the purchase of television advertising. In other countries, such as France, political advertising is strictly limited on television,[1] and some, like Norway, even completely ban it.
Television was still in its experimental phase in 1928, but its future potential to sell goods was already in mind
Contents
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1 History 2 Characteristics 3 TV advertisements around the world o 3.1 United States of America 3.1.1 Frequency 3.1.2 Popularity 3.1.3 Restrictions 3.1.4 Are advertisements also programming? o 3.2 Europe 3.2.1 United Kingdom 3.2.2 Germany 3.2.3 Ireland 3.2.4 Finland 3.2.5 Russia o 3.3 Asia-Pacific 3.3.1 Malaysia 3.3.2 The Philippines 3.3.3 Australia 3.3.4 New Zealand 4 Use of popular music 5 Future of TV advertisements 6 References 7 See also 8 External links
[edit] History
The world's first television advertisement was broadcast July 1, 1941. The watchmaker Bulova paid $4 for a placement on New York station WNBT before a baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. The 10-second spot displayed a picture of a clock superimposed on a map of the United States, accompanied by the voice-over "America runs on Bulova time." [2][3]
[edit] Characteristics
Many television advertisements feature catchy jingles (songs or melodies) or catchphrases (slogan) that generate sustained appeal, which may remain in the minds of television viewers long after the span of the advertising campaign. Some of these ad jingles or catch-phrases may take on lives of their own, spawning gags or "riffs" that may
appear in other forms of media, such as comedy movies or television variety shows, or in written media, such as magazine comics or literature. These long-lasting advertising elements may therefore be said to have taken a place in the pop culture history of the demographic to which they have appeared. One such example is the enduring phrase, "Winston tastes good like a cigarette should," from the eighteen-year advertising campaign for Winston cigarettes from the 1950s to the 1970s. Variations of this catchy dialogue and direct references to it appeared even as long as two decades after the ad campaign expired. Another is, "Where's the Beef?", which grew so popular that it was used in the 1984 presidential election by Walter Mondale. And yet another popular catchphrase is "I've fallen and I can't get up", which still appears occasionally, decades after its first use. Advertising agencies often use humor as a tool in their creative marketing campaigns. In fact, many psychological studies tried to demonstrate the effect of humour and indicate the way to empower advertising persuasion.
An animated TV advertisement Animation is often used in advertisements. The pictures can vary from hand-drawn traditional animation to computer animation. By using animated characters, an advertisement may have a certain appeal that is difficult to achieve with actors or mere product displays. For this reason, an animated advertisement (or a series of such advertisements) can be very long-running, several decades in many instances. A notable example is the series of advertisements for Kellogg's cereals, starring Snap, Crackle and Pop. The animation is often combined with real actors. Other long-running ad campaigns catch people by surprise, or even tricking the viewer, such as the Energizer Bunny advertisement series. It started in the late 1980s as a simple comparison advertisement, where a room full of battery-operated bunnies was seen pounding their drums, all slowing down...except one, with the Energizer battery. Years later, a revised version of this seminal advertisement had the Energizer bunny escaping the stage and moving on (according to the announcer, he "keeps going and going and going..."). This was followed by what appeared to be another advertisement: viewers were oblivious to the fact that the following "advertisement" was actually a parody of other well-known advertisements until the Energizer bunny suddenly intrudes on the situation, with the announcer saying "Still going..." (the Energizer Battery Company's way of emphasizing that their battery lasts longer than other leading batteries). This ad campaign lasted for nearly fifteen years. The Energizer Bunny series has itself been
imitated by others, via a Coors Light Beer advertisement, in motion pictures, and even by current advertisements by Geico Insurance.
[edit] TV advertisements around the world
[edit] United States of America
[edit] Frequency
Television is advertisements appear between shows, but also interrupt the shows at intervals. This method of screening advertisements is intended to capture or grab the attention of the audience, keeping the viewers focused on the television show so that they will not want to change the channel; instead, they will (hopefully) watch the advertisements while waiting for the next segment of the show. However, remote controls have now made it easier for audiences to "tune out" advertisements simply by allowing them to turn down the volume or even switch channels when the advertisement comes on. In addition, Television recording mechanisms such as DVR and TiVo have also allowed viewers to skip advertising completely during television programming. Entire industries exist that focus solely on the task of keeping the viewing audience interested enough to sit through advertisements. The Nielsen ratings system exists as a way for stations to determine how successful their television shows are, so that they can decide what rates to charge advertisers for their advertisements. Advertisements take airtime away from programs. In the 1960s a typical hour-long American show would run for 51 minutes excluding advertisements. Today, a similar program would only be 42 minutes long; a typical 30-minute block of time now includes 22 minutes of programming with 6 minutes of national advertising and 2 minutes of local. In other words, over the course of 10 hours, American viewers will see approximately 3 hours of advertisements, twice what they would have seen in the sixties. Furthermore, if that sixties show is rerun today it may be cut by 9 minutes to make room for the extra advertisements (some modern showings of Star Trek exhibit this). Back in the 1950s and 1960s, the average advertisement was one minute. As the years passed, the average length shrank to 30 seconds (and often 10 seconds, depending on the television station's purchase of ad time), but more of them are now shown during the break, while in the '60's, only one or two advertisements would be shown at each break. However, today a majority of advertisements run in 15-second increments (often known as "hooks"). TV advertisements are identified by an ISCI code.
[edit] Popularity
In the United States, the TV advertisement is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format, and this is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during popular TV events. The annual Super Bowl American football game is known as much for its commercial advertisements as for the game itself, and the average cost of a single 30-second TV spot during this game (seen by 90 million viewers) has reached US$2.7 million (as of February 2008). In general, advertisers covet the 18-49 age demographic; older viewers are of almost no interest to most advertisers.[4] The number of viewers within the target demographic is more important to ad revenues than total viewers. According to Advertising Age, during the 2007-08 season, Grey's Anatomy was able to charge $419,000 per commercial, compared to only $248,000 for a commercial during CSI, despite CSI having almost five million more viewers on average.[5] Due to its demo strength, Friends was able to charge almost three times for a commercial as Murder, She Wrote, even though the two series had similar total viewer numbers during the seasons they were on the air together. [4] Broadcast networks are concerned by the increasing use of DVRs by young viewers, resulting in aging of the live viewing audience and consequently, lower ad rates. [6] Because a single television advertisement can be broadcast repeatedly over the course of weeks, months, and even years (the Tootsie Roll company has been broadcasting a famous advertisement that asks "How many licks does it take to get to the tootsie center of a Tootsie Pop?" for over three decades), television advertisement production studios often spend enormous sums of money in the production of one single thirty-second television spot. This vast expenditure has resulted in a number of high-quality advertisements, ones which boast of the best production values, the latest in special effects technology, the most popular personalities, and the best music. A number of television advertisements are so elaborately produced that they can be considered miniature thirty-second movies; indeed, many film directors have directed television advertisements both as a way to gain exposure and to earn a paycheck. One of film director Ridley Scott's most famous cinematic moments was a television advertisement he directed for the Apple Macintosh computer, that was broadcast in 1984. Even though this advertisement was broadcast only once (aside from occasional appearances in television advertisement compilation specials and one 1 a.m. airing a month before the Super Bowl so that the advertisement could be submitted to award ceremonies for that year), it has become famous and well-known, to the point where it is considered a classic television moment. Despite the popularity of some advertisements, many consider them to be an annoyance for a number of reasons. The main reason may be that the sound volume of advertisements tends to be higher (and in some cases much higher) than that of regular programming. The increasing number of advertisements, as well as overplaying of the same advertisement, are secondary annoyance factors. A third might be the increasing ability to advertise on television, prompting ad campaigns by everyone from cell-phone companies and fast food restaurants to local businesses and small businesses.
From a cognitive standpoint, the core reason people find advertisements annoying is that the advertisement's offer is not of interest at that moment, or the presentation is unclear. A typical viewer has seen enough advertisements to anticipate that most advertisements will be bothersome, prompting the viewer to be mercilessly selective in their viewing. Conversely, if an advertisement strikes a chord with the viewer (such as an ad for debt relief shown to a viewer who has received a late notice in the mail), or has entertainment value beyond the basic message (such as the classic humorous spots for Wendy's "Where's the beef?" campaign), then viewers tend to stay with the advertisement, perhaps even looking forward to viewing it again.[citation needed] Some Pitchmen, such as Billy Mays have become important to popular culture
[edit] Restrictions
Beginning on January 2, 1971, advertisements featuring cigarettes have been banned from American TV. Advertisements for alcohol products are allowed, but the consumption of any alcohol product is not allowed in a television advertisement. Since the late 1990s TV advertisements have become far more diverse, and in addition household products and foods that are not new are no longer generally advertised as they were in the mid to late 20th century.
[edit] Are advertisements also programming?
Since the 1960s, media critics have claimed that the boundaries between "programming" and "advertisements" have been eroded to the point where the line is blurred nearly as much as it was during the beginnings of the medium, when television shows were sponsored by corporations. For much of the 1970s, '80s, and '90s, the FCC imposed a rule requiring networks that broadcast programming on Saturday morning and Sunday nights at 7 PM/6 PM Central air bumpers ("We'll return after these messages...", "...now back to our programming" and variations thereof) to help younger audiences distinguish programs from advertisements. The only programs that were exempt from this rule were news shows and information shows relating to news (such as 60 Minutes). Conditions on children's programming have eased a bit since the period of the 1970s and 1980s.
[edit] Europe
In many European countries television advertisements appear in longer, but less frequent advertising breaks. For example, instead of 3 minutes every 8 minutes, there might be around 6 minutes every half hour. European Union legislation limits the time taken by commercial breaks to 12 minutes per hour (20%), with a minimum segment length of 20 or 30 minutes, depending on the programme content.[7] However, these are maximum limits and so specific regulations differ widely from both within and outside the EU, and indeed from network to network. Unlike in the United States, in Europe the advertising agency name may appear at the beginning or at the end of the advert.
[edit] United Kingdom
In the UK, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is funded by a licence fee and does not screen adverts in the conventional sense of the term but it frequently advertises its commercially available products, programmes and 'personalities', increasingly in a manner identical to the commercial channels' adverts. Nevertheless, on the commercial channels, the amount of airtime allowed by the UK broadcasting regulator Ofcom for advertising is an overall average of 7 minutes per hour, with limits of 12 minutes for any particular clock hour (8 minutes per hour between 6pm and 11pm). With 42 -minute American exports to Britain, such as Lost, being given a one hour slot, nearly one third of the slot is taken up by adverts or trailers for other programmes. Live imported tv programmes such as WWE Raw show promotional material that is shown in place of US advert breaks. Infomercials (known as "admags") were originally a feature of the main commercial channel ITV when it was launched in 1955 but were banned in 1963. The first advert to be shown in the UK was an advert for S.R. Toothpaste in 1955. [8] Freeview has provided a cheap entry level alternative to satellite and cable subscription services and has taken the penetration of digital television to well over 80%. The growth of multi-channel television has changed the face of TV advertising making the medium effective for companies with niche products and a targeted audience. 30second advertisements on digital channels such as Sky News, MTV or E4 can be bought for less than £50000 and adverts on more targeted channels like the Business Channel, Motors TV or Real Estate TV for less than £500 per 30 seconds. New TV channels are launching every week in the UK and advertising opportunities are plentiful. In 2008, Ofcom announced a Review of television advertising and teleshopping regulation, with a view to possibly changing their code, Rules on the Amount and Distribution of Advertising (RADA), which regulates the duration, frequency and restriction of adverts on television.
[edit] Germany
As in Britain, in Germany, public television stations own a major share of the market. Their programming is funded by a licence fee as well as advertisements on specific hours of the day (5 p.m. to 8 p.m.), except on Sundays and holidays. Private stations are allowed to show up to 12 minutes of ads per hour with a minimum of 20 minutes of programming in between interruptions.
[edit] Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, the Broadcasting Commission of Ireland allows up to a maximum of 10 minutes of advertising minutage per hour for all broadcasters [9]. Regarding overall advertising minutes there is a difference between the public funded TV broadcasters and commercial TV broadcasters. Broadcasters funded by a television
licence fee, RTÉ and TG4, are permitted to allocate 10% of their broadcast minutage to advertising. Commercial broadcasters, TV3 and 3e (formerly Channel 6) and Setanta Ireland are permitted a maximum of 15% advertising time vs. overall broadcast time. This effectively gives an average of either 6 minutes or 9 minutes an hour depending on the type of broadcaster.
[edit] Finland
In Finland, there are two mainstream non-commercial channels run by the state owned broadcasting company YLE, that run advertisements only on very infrequent occasions, such as important sport events. The three main commercial channels MTV3, SubTV (a subsidiary of MTV3), and Nelonen ("Number Four" in Finnish), all run their advertisements during breaks approximately every 15 minutes. Since digital TV has been introduced, the number of TV channels has grown, with YLE and the main broadcasters all adding new channels (including some subscription channels). Analogue broadcasts ceased in August 2007 and the nation's TV services are now exclusively digital. A typical break lasts about 4 minutes. The length of individual advertisements can vary from a few seconds (7, 10 and 15 are common), but nowadays they are rarely over one minute in length. Many advertisements of supranational companies are dubbed from English language advertisements. Although Swedish is the other official language of Finland, the advertisements do not feature Swedish subtitles nor are any Swedish language advertisements shown. English language advertisements are also uncommon.
[edit] Russia
The Russian advertising break consists of 2 parts: federal adverts and regional adverts. The duration for each is 4 minutes and 15 minutes per hour respectively. The Russian government intends to decrease TV advertisements because of a drop in TV channels' ratings.
[edit] Asia-Pacific
[edit] Malaysia
All television stations and channels, whether government-owned or private, air commercials. In Malaysia, a typical break lasts about 5 minutes. TV advertisements are being identified by KP/YYYY, where YYYY is a year. However, this was not common in the Astro satellite television service and Media Prima-owned television stations, such as TV3, ntv7, 8TV and TV9. Astro is also known to delay incoming satellite feeds for its purpose of commercial replacement, as government laws forbid commercials produced from overseas, except those recognizing Malaysia's brands, such as Sony, Panasonic, MyEG, Maxis, Nokia and LG, as well as produced from within the country itself.
Cigarette advertisements have been banned in the country. TV3 has sparked some controversies to Malaysian entertainment in the recent years, with the excessive advertisement space which lead to the anger of the audience.
[edit] The Philippines
In the Philippines, TV networks regulate the amount of advertisements shown. The Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng Pilipinas (KBP), the broadcast regulatory body whose members include all major TV and radio networks and stations except GMA Network, now implements an 18-minute-per-hour rule, meaning, an hour of broadcast programming should only have a maximum of 18 minutes' advertising time load. The organization said the move was to "promote public interest." [10][11] Cigarette advertisements have been banned in the country[citation needed]. Most advertisements last about 10 to 30 seconds per spot.
[edit] Australia
Similar to the European Union, advertising on Australian commercial television is restricted to a certain amount in a 24-hour period, but there are no restrictions on how much advertising may appear in any particular hour.[12] Australian television generally has high advertising content. Like Canada, it is one of the few countries in the world where advertisements may appear prior to the closing credits of a program. There are other restrictions on television advertising in Australia, such as the complete ban on advertising during programmes intended for young children. The ABC, the nation's public broadcaster, broadcasts no external advertisements, but between programmes will broadcast promotions for its own commercial breaks during each programme, but is restricted to approximately five minutes per hour.
[edit] New Zealand
All major New Zealand television channels, whether state-owned or private, screen advertisements, with adverts on average taking up 15 minutes of each hour. There are usually two advert breaks in a half-hour programme, and four advert breaks in an hourlong programme. Television adverts are banned on Christmas Day, Good Friday, Easter Sunday, and also on Sunday mornings before midday (although TV3 did broadcast adverts on Sunday mornings during the 2007 Rugby World Cup). Also, advertising of certain products is restricted (e.g. alcohol, unhealthy foods) or banned (e.g. tobacco). The Advertising Standards Authority is responsible for advertisement compliance, and deals with advertisement complaints (except for election advertising, in which the Broadcasting Standards Authority is responsible.
[edit] Use of popular music
Prior to the 1980s music in television advertisements was generally limited to jingles and incidental music; on some occasions lyrics to a popular song would be changed to create a theme song or a jingle for a particular product. In 1971 the converse occurred when a song written for a Coca-Cola advertisement was re-recorded as the pop single "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing" by the New Seekers, and became a hit. Some pop and rock songs were re-recorded by cover bands for use in advertisements, but the cost of licensing original recordings for this purpose remained prohibitive until the late 1980s. The use of previously-recorded popular songs in television advertisements began in earnest in 1985 when Burger King used the original recording of Aretha Franklin's song "Freeway of Love" in a television advertisement for the restaurant. This also occurred in 1987 when Nike used the original recording of The Beatles' song "Revolution" in an advertisement for athletic shoes. Since then, many classic popular songs have been used in similar fashion. Songs can be used to concretely illustrate a point about the product being sold (such as Bob Seger's "Like a Rock" used for Chevy trucks), but more often are simply used to associate the good feelings listeners had for the song to the product on display. In some cases the original meaning of the song can be totally irrelevant or even completely opposite to the implication of the use in advertising; for example Iggy Pop's "Lust for Life", a song about heroin use addiction, has been used to advertise Royal Caribbean International, a cruise ship line. Music-licensing agreements with major artists, especially those which had not previously allowed their recordings to be used for this purpose, such as Microsoft's use of "Start Me Up" by the Rolling Stones and Apple Inc.'s use of U2's "Vertigo" became a source of publicity in themselves. In early instances, songs were often used over the objections of the original artists, who had lost control of their music publishing the music of Beatles being perhaps the most well-known case; more recently artists have actively solicited use of their music in advertisements and songs have gained popularity and sales after being used in advertisements. Famous case is Levi's company which has used several one hit wonders in their advertisements (songs such as "Inside", "Spaceman" and "Flat Beat"). Sometimes a controversial reaction has followed the use of some particular song on an advertisement. Often the trouble has been that people do not like the idea of using songs that promote values important for them in advertisements. For example Sly and the Family Stone's anti-racism song, "Everyday People", was used in a car advertisement which caused anger among people. Generic scores for advertisements often feature clarinets, saxophones, or various strings (such as the acoustic/electric guitars and violins) as the primary instruments. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, electronica music was increasingly used as background scores for television advertisements, initially for automobiles, [13] and later for other technological and business products such as computers and financial services.
[edit] Future of TV advertisements
Though advertisements for cigarettes are banned in many countries, advertisements can still occur by the broadcast of race events. The introduction of digital video recorders (also know as digital television recorders or DTRs), such as TiVo, and services like Sky+, Dish Network and Astro MAX, which allow the recording of television programs onto a hard drive, also enable viewers to fastforward or automatically skip through advertisements of recorded programs. There is speculation that television advertisements are threatened by digital video recorders as viewers choose not to watch them. However evidence from the UK shows that this is so far not the case. At the end of 2008 22 per cent of UK households had a DTR. The majority of these households had Sky+ and data from these homes (collected via the SkyView[14] panel of more than 33,000) shows that, once a household gets a DTR, they watch 17 per cent more television. 82 per cent of their viewing is to normal, linear, broadcast TV without fast-forwarding the ads. In the 18 per cent of TV viewing that is time-shifted (i.e. not watched as live broadcast), viewers still watch 30 per cent of the ads at normal speed. Overall, the extra viewing encouraged by owning a DTR results in viewers watching 2 per cent more ads at normal speed than they did before the DTR was installed. The SkyView evidence is reinforced by studies on actual DTR behaviour by the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB) and the London Business School. Other forms of TV advertising include Product placement advertising in the TV shows themselves. For example, Extreme Makeover: Home Edition advertises Sears, Kenmore, and Home Depot by specifically using products from these companies, and some sports events like the Sprint Cup of NASCAR are named after sponsors, and of course, race cars are frequently covered in advertisements. Incidentally, many major sporting venues, in North America at least, are named for commercial companies, dating back as far as Wrigley Field. Television programs delivered through new mediums such as streaming online video also bring different possibilities to the traditional methods of generating revenue from television advertising.[15] Another type of advertisement shown more and more, mostly for advertising TV shows on the same channel, is an ad overlay at the bottom of the TV screen, which blocks out
some of the picture. "Banners", or "Logo Bugs", as they are called, are referred to by media companies as Secondary Events (2E). This is done in much the same way as a severe weather warning is done, only these happen more frequently. they may sometimes take up only 5 to 10 percent of the screen, but in the extreme, they can take up as much a s 25 percent of the viewing area. Subtitles that are part of the program content can be completely obscured by banners. Some even make noise or move across the screen. One example is the 2E ads for Three Moons Over Milford, which was broadcast in the months before the TV show's premiere. A video taking up approximately 25 percent of the bottom-left portion of the screen would show a comet impacting into the moon with an accompanying explosion, during another television program. Google's Eric Schmidt has announced plans to enter the television ad delivery and optimization business. This is despite the fact that Google only has a text advertising business model at present. There are few details in place about how this may occur, but some have speculated that they will use a similar model to that of their business strategy directed at radio broadcast, which included the acquisition of operations system support provider.[16][17] Online video directories are an emerging form of interactive advertising, which help in recalling and responding to advertising produced primarily for television. These directories also have the potential to offer other value-added services, such as response sheets and click-to-call, which greatly enhance the scope of the interaction with the brand. During the 2008-09 TV season, FOX experimented with a new strategy, which the network dubbed "Remote-Free TV". Episodes of Fringe and Dollhouse contained approximately ten minutes of commercials, four to six minutes fewer than other hourlong programs. FOX stated that shorter commercial breaks keep viewers more engaged and improve brand recall for advertisers, as well as reducing channel surfing and fastforwarding past the ads. However, the strategy was not as successful as the network had hoped and it is unclear whether it will be continued into the next season. [18]