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Name: _________________________________________ Period: ____________ Date: ________________

BONDING INQUIRY ACTIVITY
PART 1 – CLASSIFICATIONS OF BONDS

SUBSTANCE GROUP #1:

For each of the following substances, place the symbol of the first element in its spot on the periodic table using red ink.
Then, place the symbol of the second element in the substance in its spot on the periodic table using black ink.

NaCl LiBr KF ZnCl2 Fe2O3 CuI2 Al2S3

QUESTIONS FOR SUBSTANCE GROUP #1:

1. What do you notice about the location of the first element in the substance? What do they have in common?

2. Based on your knowledge about the periodic table, what “classification” would you give these elements? Metal
or Non-Metal?

3. What do you notice about the location of the second element in each substance? What do they have in common?

4. Based on your knowledge about the periodic table, what “classification” would you give these elements? Metal or
Non-Metal
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SUBSTANCE GROUP #2

For each of the following substances, place the symbol of the first element in its spot on the periodic table using a red ink.
Then, place the symbol of the second element in the substance in its spot on the periodic table using black ink.

CCl4 P2O5 N2O4 NI3 PBr3 F2Se

QUESTIONS FOR SUBSTANCE GROUP #2:

5. What do you notice about the location of the first element in the substance? What do they have in common?

6. Based on your knowledge about the periodic table, what “classification” would you give these elements? Metal
or Non-Metal?

7. What do you notice about the location of the second element in the substance? What do they have in common?

8. Based on your knowledge about the periodic table, what “classification” would you give these elements? Metal or
Non-Metal?
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TYING IT TOGETHER:
9. Group 1 substances are called ionic compounds and Group 2 substances are called covalent molecules. Write a
simple rule that will allow you to classify compounds as ionic or covalent on the basis of what you have learned
from the model.

10. Did the subscripts (the little numbers shown in the compound formulas) provide any insight into determining
whether a substance is ionic or covalent? Why or why not?

ELEMENT EVALUATION:

11. Fill in the following tables identifying the type of element present in the substance. Use “M” for metal, and
“NM” for non-metal.

FORMULA 1ST ELEMENT (M or NM) 2ND ELEMENT(M or NM) CLASSIFICATION
(Ionic or Covalent?)

NaBr

SF6

CoBr2

BaS

NO2

C6H6

CrCl3

CO2

MnO2

PbCl2

OF2

CsF
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12. Answer the following multiple choice question. Justify your answer with a statement.

Which of the following element(s) is/are more likely to combine with lead to form an ionic substance?

I. Potassium
II. Bromine
III. Oxygen
IV. Manganese

A. I and II B. II only C. I and IV D. II and III E. IV only

Justification:

13. Answer the following multiple choice question. Justify your answer with a statement.

Which of the following element(s) is/are more likely to combine with phosphorus to form a covalent substance?

I. Sulfur
II. Bromine
III. Cobalt
IV. Vanadium

A. I and II B. II only C. I and IV D. II and III E. IV only

Justification
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PART 2 – THE IONIC BOND

CATION ANION CHEMICAL COMPOUND NAME
FORMULA
Na+ Cl─ NaCl Sodium chloride

Ca2+ O2 ─ CaO Calcium oxide

Zn2+ Cl─ ZnCl2 Zinc chloride

Li+ S2─ Li2S Lithium sulfide

K+ N─3 K3N Potassium nitride

1. What do all cations have in common? What change in atomic structure (protons, neutrons, and/or electrons) has
occurred to form the cations?

2. What do all anions have in common? What change in atomic structure (protons, neutrons, and/or electrons) has
occurred to form the anions?

3. When the chemical formula of an ionic compound is given, which ion is always stated first?

4. GLIMPSE INTO THE FUTURE: What change occurred in the name of the non-metal name to the anion name in
the compound?

5. The ions formed in molecules from Group 1 atoms (the alkali metals) are almost esclusively M+ ions rather than
M+2 ions. Justify this observation using electron configurations and the concept of becoming isoelectronic with
the nearest noble gas (this is called the octet rule).

6. The ions formed in molecules from Group 2 atoms (the alkaline earth metals) are almost exclusively M +2 ions
rather than M+3 ions. Justify this observation using electron configurations and the concept of becoming
isoelectronic with the nearest noble gas (this is called the octet rule).
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7. The ions formed in molecules from Group 17 atoms (the halogens) are almost exclusively X ─ ions rather than X─2
ions. Justify this observation using electron configurations and the concept of becoming isoelectronic with the
nearest noble gas (this is called the octet rule).

8. For each of the following atoms, predict the most likely oxidation number (charge) for its corresponding ion. The
first one is completed for you as a model.

S S2─

N
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WRITING FORMULAS AND NAMING COMPOUNDS

IONIC COMPOUNDS

One of the most important concepts to understand when naming and writing ionic compounds is the
concept of charge. You must be able to predict which ions will have which charge. Therefore, let’s have
a little review!

Fill in the charge (or charges) for each of the following groups.

Group Metal or Non-Metal? Lose or Gain Electrons? Charge(s)?

Group 1 Metal Lose 1 electron

Group 2 Metal Lose 2 electrons

Group 13 Metal Lose 3 electrons

Non-Metal Gain 4 electrons
Group 14
Metal Lose 2 or 4 electrons

Non-Metal Gain 3 electrons
Group 15
Metal Lose 3 or 5 electrons

Group 16 Non-Metal Gain 2 electrons

Group 17 Non-Metal Gain 1 electron

We also have three elements in the transition metal section which always have a set charge.
You will eventually need to make sure you have these memorized.

+1
Ag Zn+2 Cd+2
Binary means 2 types of
elements! Not 2 total
atoms.
A. Binary Ionic Compounds

Now that you know which elements have which charge, we are ready to start
writing formulas of ionic compounds! Remember from our last unit that we
represent ionic compounds as the lowest whole number ratio of atoms that make a
NEUTRAL formula unit! The goal of ionic compounds is to make electrons lost
equal electrons gained – or, in other words, TO MAKE CHARGES CANCEL
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OUT. Therefore, you might need more than one of an element to make them cancel!
If you need more than one of an element, you will use a subscript to indicate how many you need. We do
not show a subscript if only one of that element is needed. Also, in the final formula, charges are not
shown – the subscripts are indicating that charges are canceling out, so we don’t need to show them!

Remember ―-ide‖ means Notice no charges
single element anion EXCEPT are shown in the
hydroxide and cyanide final compound!

Elements Ions Make Charges Cancel! Final Formula

+2 -1 -1 = 0
calcium chloride Ca+2 and Cl-1 CaCl2
(need 1 Ca +2 and 2 Cl -1)
+3 +3 -2 -2 -2 = 0 Al2O3
aluminum oxide Al+3 and O-2 (need 2 Al +3 and 3 O -2)

lithium fluoride

magnesium phosphide

NOTICE HOW CATIONS (metals) GO FIRST AND ANIONS (non-metals) GO
SECOND! We always write the positive ions first and the negative ions second.
We name in the same order as well.

–ION before AN –

Now, let’s talk about how to name compounds! For BINARY (2-element) ionic compounds where there is
only one possible charge for the element, this process is very easy. Simply name the metal, then name
the non-metal with an ―–ide‖ ending.
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Formula Name

CaCl2 Calcium chloride

Al2O3 Aluminum oxide

Na2O

BaI2

B. Binary Ionic Compounds WITH those WEIRD Transition metals!

So far, we’ve only looked at ionic compounds where the elements have
only one possible charge for their ions. However, we have several
metals that can have more than one charge for their ions! The metals
that like to have more than one charge for their ions are most of
the transition metals, and the metals of groups 14 and 15.
Therefore, we need to show which charge was used for the metal when
we write the name of the compound. We do this by placing the charge
of the metal as a roman numeral directly after the metal’s name. We
name the non-metal with the ―–ide‖ ending.

Find the final formula for each compound. These examples are using elements that have more than
one possible charge for the metal ion.
But why is there no
roman numeral charge
The (III) tells us for the oxide?

that iron has a +3
charge! Because oxygen only
has one possible
charge for his ion!

Compound Ions Make Charges Cancel! Final Formula

+3 +3 -2 -2 -2 = 0
Iron (III) oxide Fe+3 and O-2 Fe2O3
(need 2 Fe+3 and 3 O-2)
+4 -1 -1 -1 -1 = 0
Tin (IV) chloride Sn+4 and Cl-1 SnCl4
(need 1 Sn+4 and 4 Cl-1)

Lead (IV) oxide

Tin (II) sulfide

Now that you’ve seen how the roman numerals work in the forward direction, it’s time to try it out in the
backwards direction. This gets a little bit harder. First, when you see an ionic compound, identify if the
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metal has more than one possible charge or not. If it does have more than one possible charge, use the
non-metal to figure out the charge of the metal. Then, to name the compound, (1) name the metal, (2)
place the charge of the metal using roman numerals in brackets, and (3) name the non-metal using the ―–
ide‖ ending.

Name the following binary ionic compounds. These examples are using elements that all have more
than one possible charge for the metal ion.
Non-Metal Ion Name
Formula Find Charge of Metal
with Charge (Use Roman Numeral for Charge!)
Pb -1 -1 = 0
-1
PbCl2 Cl Pb = +2 Lead (II) chloride
(so, Pb has +2 charge)
Cu + Cu -2 = 0
Cu2S S-2 Cu = +1 Copper (I) sulfide
(so, Cu has +1 charge)

SnO

CoF3

C. Ternary Ionic Compounds USING POLYATOMIC IONS!
Finally, we need to learn how to name and write compounds that have polyatomic ions as part of the
formula. Luckily for us, this is not much different than what we’ve already learned! By the way, these
are called TERNARY ionic compounds because they have three or more elements. With formula writing,
the process is the same as it was with binary ionic compounds – the only difference is that if you need
more than one of a polyatomic ion, we use parentheses before we put the final subscript.

Find the final formula for each of the following compounds. Notice parentheses were used when
more than one polyatomic ion was needed!

Compound Ions Make Charges Cancel! Final Formula

+3 -1 -1 -1 = 0
Aluminum nitrate Al+3 and NO3-1 Al(NO3)3
(need 1 Al+3 and 3 NO3-1)
+1 +1 +1 -3 = 0
Ammonium phosphate NH4+1 and PO4-3 (NH4)3PO4
(need 3 NH4+1 and 1 PO4-3)

Calcium hydroxide

Copper (II) sulfate

Zinc chlorate

Naming Flowchart to help with Ionic Compound naming:
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Ionic
Com pound
NOTICE HOW IMPORTANT
SPELLING IS!!!!!
Me tal + n on meta l Me tal + p ol y i on
NH 4 + + n on me tal NH4 + + p ol y i o n
Ammonium Chloride: NH4Cl

Ammonium Chlorate: NH4ClO3
1 . Name me ta l or
1 . Name me ta l or
a mmo ni u m
a mmo ni u m Ammonium Chlorite: NH4ClO2
2 . Name no n-m etal with
2 . Name po l yato mi c i on
"-i de " e n di ng
-ATE and –ITE endings indicate
POLYATOMIC IONS.
If m etal h as mo re tha n o ne p ossib l e
o xi da ti o n n umb e r, sho w usi ng
-IDE endings indicate non-metal ions, except
rom an n u mera ls
(Grou p 3 -1 5 me tal s, excep t cyanide and hydroxide.
Al +3 , Zn +2 , Ag+1 , & Cd +2 )
D. Ionic Compounds that are
HYDRATES
# Waters PREFIX # Waters PREFIX
Hydrates are ionic compounds that have trapped water 1 mono- 6 hexa-
in their crystal structure. They have different physical 2 di- 7 hepta-
properties from the anhydrate form. 3 tri- 8 octa-
 Use covalent prefixes to indicate the number 4 tetra- 9 nona-
of waters that are bound when writing the 5 penta- 10 deca-
name.
 Use a ―•‖ (dot) to show how many waters are bound when writing the formula.

FORMULA NAME
Cu2SO3•3H2O Copper (II) sulfite trihydrate (note that you need to include roman
numerals because copper has more than one oxidation number)
Na2SO4• 10H2O

LiNO3•3H2O

NAME FORMULA
zinc sulfate heptahydrate ZnSO4•7H2O

Cobalt (II) fluoride tetrahydrate
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COVALENT MOLECULES
A. INORGANIC Covalent Molecules

A binary covalent compound is composed of two different nonmetal elements. For example, a molecule of
chlorine trifluoride, ClF3 contains 1 atom of chlorine and 3 atoms of fluorine.

STEPS TO NAMING:

Step 1: Name the first non-metal using a prefix to indicate how many of that element was in the
compound.
Step 2: Name the second non-metal using a prefix and add the suffix -ide to the end of the name of the
element.

# ATOMS PREFIX # ATOMS PREFIX
1 mono- 6 hexa-
2 di- 7 hepta-
3 tri- 8 octa-
You will be tempted to use
4 tetra- 9 nona-
prefixes when naming ionics.
5 penta- 10 deca-
DO NOT GIVE IN TO THE
TEMPTATION!

EXCEPTION: if the compound contains one atom of the element that is written first in the name,
the prefix "mono-" is not used.

Note: when the addition of the Greek prefix places two vowels adjacent to one another, the "a" (or the
"o") at the end of the Greek prefix is usually dropped; e.g., "nonaoxide" would be written as "nonoxide",
and "monooxide" would be written as "monoxide". The "i" at the end of the prefixes "di-" and "tri-" are
never dropped.

FORMULA NAME
Carbon dioxide (there is one carbon, but since it is the first element, we don’t use the
CO 2
prefix ―mono‖. There are two oxygens, so we use the prefix ―di‖ and change the ending to
―ide‖ – just like with binary ionics!)

N2O3

SO 3
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NAME PREFIXES FORMULA

dinitrogen pentoxide di=2, pent=5 N2O5

chlorine monofluoride

nitrogen trifluoride

B. ORGANIC Covalent Compounds
 We will be using organic compounds which contain carbon and hydrogen only, called hydrocarbons.
 The compounds will be of two general types—straight chain and cyclic.
 Straight chain hydrocarbons will always fit the general formula. CnH2n+2 and their names must be
memorized (but they are very intuitive after the first four). These names end in “-ane”
 A cyclic hydrocarbon can be recognized by the fact that it will fit the general formula CnH2n, and
the same type of naming system will be used EXCEPT that the prefix “cyclo” will be placed in
front of the name.

1 meth- 6 hex-
HINT for the first 4:
Mom Eats Peanut 2 eth- 7 hept-
Butter – Meth, Eth, 3 prop- 8 oct-
Prop, But 4 but- 9 non- butane
5 pent- 10 dec-
SUMMARY:
 They all end in ―ane‖
 Put a prefix in front of ―ane‖ to indicate carbons
 If #H = (2 x #C) + 2, then you are done!
cyclobutane
 If #H = (2 x # C), add ―cyclo‖ at the beginning

C2H6 cyclopentane

cyclobutane C10H20
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ACIDS
We tend to place acids into their own category, as they follow their own set of rules. Acids are always
aqueous solutions (aq). An example is HCl (aq) – named hydrochloric acid. If the substance is a gas
(such as HCl (g)), then use your ionic naming rules – i.e. hydrogen chloride.
1. Naming Acids:
 Name the anion present in the acid.
 Change the suffix of the anion according the chart below
 Add the word ―acid‖ as a last name.
 If the acid has sulfur or phosphorus, we add the ―ur‖ and ―or‖ back into the name. Ex.
H2SO3  sulfite  sulfurous acid

Formula of Acid Anion Name Acid Name

H + poly ion (per-ate) Per_____ate Per_____ic acid
I ―ate‖ something
H + poly ion (-ate) _____ate _____ic acid ―icky‖, all ―nite‖ I
was nauseous, when I
H + poly ion (-ite) _____ite _____ous acid took a ride on a
H + poly ion (hypo-ite) Hypo____ite Hypo___ous acid hydraulic plane

H + non-metal _____ide Hydro___ic acid

FORMULA ANION NAME ACID NAME

HNO2 (aq) nitrite Nitrous acid

HF (aq)

H3PO3 (aq)
JOKE OF THE PAGE:
HIO4 (aq) Johnny was a chemist’s
son, but Johnny is no
2. Writing Acid Formulas: more… for what he
 Change the acid suffix to an anion suffix thought was H2O was
 Write the anion formula H2SO4!
 Add enough ―H+‖ to balance out the charge on the anion

ACID NAME ANION NAME ANION ACID FORMULA
FORMULA Add H+ to anion
Phosphoric acid “-ic” came from “-ate” PO43- H3PO4
“Phosphate”
Perbromic acid

Acetic acid
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NAME_____________________________ PERIOD_____

MIXED NAMING – WITH HELP

If IONIC: metal have
Ionic, If IONIC:
more than one charge?
Formula or name Covalent, Charge Name or formula
If COVALENT: Is the
or Acid? molecule organic?
Cancellation

Sn(HCO3)4 ionic tin has more than 1(x)+ 4(-1)
Tin (IV) bicarbonate
one charge X = +4
C5H10 covalent organic --- Cyclopentane

HC2H3O2(aq) acid --- --- Acetic acid

Cl2O5

Si2Br6

(NH4)2Cr2O7

HI (aq)

HI (g)

Sr3(PO4)2

CrCl3

Pb(C2H3O2)2 • 3 H2O

C8H18

KClO3

Nickel (III) iodide

Carbon tetrachloride
Decane

Dichlorine heptaoxide

Iron (II) chromate

Dinitrogen monoxide
Cycloheptane

Bismuth (III)
dichromate
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MIXED NAMING – USE THE FLOW CHART ONLY!

Write the formula or name for the following substances:

Aluminum oxide CdSe

Barium hydroxide SbCl3
octahydrate
NH4Br P4O10

CaF2 Aluminum
permanganate
Iron (II) iodide MgSO4•7H2O

C7H14 H2S(aq)

CoF3 Potassium oxide

HIO4 (aq) nitrogen monoxide

Aluminum chloride H2S (g)

Cl 2 O Pb3P4

sulfur Calcium phosphide
hexafluoride
Silver nitrate Hypochlorous acid

tetraphosphorus Mercury (II) bromide
hexoxide
(NH4)2SO3 C8H18

hexane xenon trioxide

Li2S SF 2

Chromium (III) Strontium iodide
chlorate
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MIXED NAMING – USE THE FLOW CHART ONLY!

Write the formula or name for the following substances:

AsF 5 Sodium sulfide

disulfur C9H18
decafluoride
Zinc nitride Hydrosulfuric acid

Aluminum hypochlorite H3PO3(aq)
octahydrate
C3H6 Barium nitrite

Cu2O carbon
tetrabromide
tetraphosphorus nonane
decasulfide
Lead (II) hypochlorite Tin (IV) phosphide

Sr3N2 HBrO(aq)

cycloheptane SeF 6

phosphoric acid AgBrO3

Ni(MnO4)2 methane

Ammonium chromate Al(ClO4)3

CaNO3•2H2O silicon
tetrachloride
Tin (II) bicarbonate Periodic acid

Ni(NO3)2•6H2O S2F10

Zn(BrO4)2 PbC2O4
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THE STRANGE CASE OF MOLE AIRLINES FLIGHT 10231

You and your team of medical examiners are called to the scene of a plane crash. The plane shows evidence of
a pre-crash explosion. The site of the explosion has a compound with the following analysis: 37.01 % carbon,
2.22 % hydrogen, 18.5 % nitrogen, and 42.27 % oxygen. The victims are found in and around the crash and
must be identified by the substances found in their belongings or in their bodies since dental records are not
available. One passenger was murdered with the time of death established as 1 hour before the crash.

YOUR JOB IS TO…

1. Use the percent composition data to determine the formulas and identities for the molecules found on the
victims.
2. Use personal data to make a probable identification of each victim.
3. Determine who was murdered and who is the most probable murderer.

PERCENT COMPOSITIONS
Victim # % C % H % N % O Location of chemical
1 67.31 6.98 4.62 21.10 Blood & luggage
63.15 5.3 31.55 Briefcase
2
46.66 4.48 31.1 17.76 Stomach
3 72.15 7.08 4.68 16.03 Pockets
4 15.87 2.22 18.15 63.41 Blood & pockets
75.42 6.63 8.38 9.57 Blood
5
37.01 2.22 18.5 42.27 Luggage
6 57.14 6.16 9.52 27.18 Briefcase
80.48 7.45 9.39 2.68 Briefcase
7
81.58 8.90 9.52 Luggage
60.00 4.48 35.53 Pockets & briefcase
8
63.56 6.00 9.27 21.17 Pockets & briefcase

THE FLIGHT LIST OF PASSENGERS AND CREW
NAME NOTES
Amadeo Oldere A pilot, has a heart condition
Connie Majors Pharmacist
Jim LeClaire Baker
Archie Starr Teacher addicted to sugar-free drinks
Bob (Reno) Henderson Pro athlete suspended for drug violations
Lisa Jo Environmental engineer, severely depressed
Bill (Cadillac) Jackson Suspected drug dealer
Norm Anderson Suspected leader of a terrorist organization

1
Karl Jones, Newman High School, Carrolton, TX. I found this activity in an old file and think it is great!
Page 23 of 58
POSSIBLE COMPOUNDS
NAME FORMULA NOTES
codeine C18H21NO3 Painkiller, prescription, controlled
cocaine C17H21NO4 Narcotic, illegal
aspirin C9H8O4 Pain killer
aspartame C14H18N2O5 Artificial sweetener
vanilla C8H8O3 Flavoring
trinitrotoluene C7H5N3O6 Explosive
Nitroglycerine C3H5N3O9 Explosive, heart medication
Curare C40H44N4O Poison
Theobromine C7H8N4O2 Chocolate flavoring
strychnine C21H22N2O2 Rat poison
dimetacrine C10H13N (EMPIRICAL) Antidepressant, prescription
acetaminophen C8H9NO2 Painkiller (Tylenol)
Page 24 of 58

NAME_______________________________________ DATE_____________ PER_________

GAS LAWS PRACTICE PACKET – QUIZ GRADE! TURN IN AT END OF CLASS.

On this activity, you must decide if you are using Boyle’s, Charles’, Gay-Lussac’s, Combined, Partial Pressures, or Ideal
Gas Law! So first, let’s list out the formulas we use for each law…

Boyle’s Law: Charles’ Law:

Gay-Lussac’s Law: Combined Law:

Law of Partial Pressures: Ideal Gas Law moles:

Ideal Gas Law Density: Ideal Gas Law mass & MM:

Graham’s Law Velocity: Graham’s Law Time:

Now, you are ready to begin going through the questions. Before you start working each problem, it is a good idea to
decide which law/formula you are going to use! When trying to decide which law to use, read each problem carefully to
see what the question is asking for and what is changing in the problem.

Fill in each of the following with the appropriate law name:

We use _____________________ when pressure and temperature are changing.

We use _____________________ when volume and temperature are changing.

We use _____________________ when pressure and volume are changing.

We use _____________________ when we are given a single pressure, a single temperature, a single volume, and
something related to moles (moles, molar mass, or grams). Remember with this law, volume must be in LITERS.

We use _____________________ when we are given individual pressures and trying to find a total pressure.

We use _____________________ when pressure, temperature, and volume are all changing.

Now, as you go through the questions, you will need to figure out which law you are using, the formula into which you
will plug in your numbers, and solve the problem, showing all work. And remember – temperature must always be in
KELVIN!!! Always show a unit with your answers!!! The 1st one has been worked for you.
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1. A toy balloon filled with air has an internal pressure of 1.25 atm and a volume of 2.50 L. If I take the balloon to the
bottom of the ocean where the pressure is 95 atm, what will be the new volume of the balloon? Assume that
temperature remained constant.

List Givens: P1 = 1.25 atm, V1 = 2.50 L P2 = 95 atm V2 = ??
( units!)
Write Formula: P1V1 = P2V2 Work:
V2 = P1V1/P2

Law Name: Boyle’s Law V2 = (1.25)(2.50)/(95)

Answer: 0.033 L V2 = 0.033 L

2. A molecule of argon takes 58 sec to effuse through a hole at a certain temperature. How long would bromine gas take
to effuse at the same temperature?

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

3. Calculate the temperature in Celsius of a 0.350 L, 0.75 mole sample of ammonia at 1.00 atm of pressure.

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

4. A sample of argon gas has a volume of 0.43 mL at 24°C. At what temperature in degrees Celsius will it have a
volume of 5.7 x 10 L?

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

5. A quantity of carbon dioxide gas occupies a volume of 624 L at a pressure of 1.40 atm. If the carbon dioxide is then
pumped into a cylinder that has a volume of 80.0 L, what pressure will the carbon dioxide exert on the cylinder
assuming constant temperature?
Page 26 of 58

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

6. A large balloon contains 11.7 grams of helium. What volume will the helium occupy at an altitude of 1.000 x 104 m,
where the atmospheric pressure is 0.262 atm and the temperature is -50°C?

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

7. A student collects 450. mL of oxygen gas OVER WATER at a pressure of 750 torr and a temperature of 17°C. What
is the volume of the oxygen gas at 0°C and 101.3 kPa?

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

8. A molecule of methane has a velocity of 22 m/s at a certain temperature. What would be the velocity of ethane at this
same temperature?

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

9. A 1025 mL sample of gas at 160 kPa and 46°C is converted to Standard Temperature and Pressure. What will be its
new volume?
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List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

10. If 275 mL of hydrogen is collected over water at 32oC and 1.4 atm what is the pressure of the hydrogen at STP?

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

11. My car has an internal volume of 2600 liters. If the sun heats my car from an initial pressure of 760 mm Hg and a
temperature of 20°C to a new temperature of 55°C, what will the new pressure inside of my car be?

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

12. What is the density of a sample of Cl2 that exert a pressure of 900. torr at a temperature of 78.5oC ?

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:
Page 28 of 58
13. A student collected a liter full of oxygen when the thermometer read 23°C and the barometer read 750 mm Hg. Two
hours later, the volume of the gas in the flask has reduced to 978 mL although the barometer had not changed. What
change had occurred in the temperature?
List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

14. When 10. grams of an unknown gas is heated to a temperature of 1089 K in a 15.0 L container it exerted a pressure of
3.50 atm. What is the molar mass of the unknown gas?

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

15. A toy balloon containing 425 mL of air escapes from a little boy watching a parade. The temperature is 32°C at street
level and the pressure is 745 mm Hg. When the balloon stops rising, its volume has become 895 mL although the
atmospheric pressure has decreased by only 300. mm Hg. What is the temperature at this level?

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

16. Three of the primary components of air are carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and oxygen. In a sample containing a mixture of
only these gases at exactly one atmosphere of pressure, the partial pressures of carbon dioxide are given as P CO2 =
0.285 torr and P N2 = 593.525 torr. Knowing that the total pressure of air at sea level is 1 atm, what is the partial
pressure of oxygen in torr?

List Givens:
( units!)
Write Formula: Work:

Law Name:

Answer:

The following questions require some thinking… thoroughly explain your answers in terms of the properties of gases!
Page 29 of 58

17. If you push your finger into a balloon and then take your finger away, the “dent” in the balloon does not remain.
Why?

18. List three ways to raise the air pressure inside a balloon.

19. What are the temperature and pressure conditions at STP?

20. Out of Boyle’s, Charles’, and Gay-Lussac’s Laws, which have a direct relationship?

21. Out of Boyle’s, Charles’, and Gay-Lussac’s Laws, which have an indirect relationship?

22. As temperature goes up, what happens to volume? Which law demonstrates this relationship? Draw a graph of what
this law might look like.

23. As temperature goes up, what happens to pressure? Which law demonstrates this relationship? Draw a graph of what
this law might look like.

24. As pressure increases, what happens to volume? Which law demonstrates this relationship? Draw a graph of what
this law might look like.
Page 30 of 58

Name: __________________________ Period: _________ Due Date: __________

Station 1: Boyle’s Law: Pressure vs. Volume
The objective of this experiment is to determine the relationship between the pressure and volume of a confined
gas. This relationship was first established by Robert Boyle in 1662 and has since been known as Boyle’s law.

PROCEDURE:
1. Attach the pressure sensor to Channel 1 of the CBL. Do NOT attach the syringe yet!!!
2. Turn on the calculator and press the “Apps” button. Use arrows to highlight the EASYDATA program and
press “Enter”.
 Looking at the display at the top of the screen, the pressure should automatically come up in the
units of kPa. If they do not, please get your teacher.
3. Now, your air pressure will read in the display at the top of the screen. Before you put the syringe on the
sensor, set the volume on the syringe to 10 mL (NOTE: the black line closest to the screw tip of the syringe
should be aligned with the 10 mL mark). Now, gently screw the syringe onto the probe.

4. You can now adjust the volume of the gas inside the syringe by pushing or pressing on the stopper of the
syringe. Do not remove the syringe from the probe when adjusting the volumes! Using the value of
pressures (in kPa) as displayed by the CBL’s, record pressure values at the following volumes:

5. Before you move to the next lab station, remove the syringe from the pressure probe.

Volume 5.0 mL 7.5 mL 10.0 mL 12.5 mL 15.0 mL 17.5 mL 20.0 mL

Pressure
(in kPa)

DRAW TWO GRAPHS: PRESSURE VS. VOLUME & PRESSURE VS. 1/VOLUME
 Include 0, 0 on your axis with no breaks in the axis for the inverse graph. You will
EXTRAPOLATE your line through the x-axis.
 Be sure that each graph properly titled, axis are labeled with the variable and appropriate units, and
that a trend line extended to the origin is included for the inverse graph.
Page 31 of 58
Page 32 of 58
CLAIM: ____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

EVIDENCE/REASONING:
Knowing that pressure is due to the collisions of molecules with the walls of their container, explain the
relationship from your claim using the concepts of space between molecules and collisions of molecules.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Station 2: Charles’ Law: Volume vs. Temperature
The objective of this experiment is to determine the relationship between the temperature and volume of a
confined gas. This relationship was first established by Jacques Charles in 1787, discussed in later
conversations with Gay-Lussac, and has since been known as Charles’ law.

PROCEDURE:

1. Obtain the syringe from your lab station. SEE FIGURE BELOW.
2. Remove the red tip from the syringe. Set the volume of the syringe to 10.0 mL. (NOTE: the black line
closest to the screw tip of the syringe should be aligned with the 10 mL mark.) REPLACE THE RED TIP
ONTO THE SYRINGE. Attach the syringe to the ring stand using a test tube clamp.
3. Put the thermometer into another test tube clamp (using a rubber stopper and the small opening on the
clamp).
4. Add approximately 500 mL of water to a 600 mL beaker, or 300 mL of water to a 400 mL beaker. Place on
the wire gauze as shown in the setup, with a Bunsen burner underneath the wire gauze.
5. Lower the syringe into the water, making sure that around half of the syringe is below the water line, and
that the red tip is not touching the bottom of the beaker, and the syringe is not touching the sides of the
beaker.
Page 33 of 58
6. Next, lower the thermometer into the water, making sure that the thermometer does not touch the beaker or
the syringe.
7. Begin to heat the water in the beaker. It is very important that you
heat gradually to achieve the best results! Heat the water to about
40o C, and try to keep the temperature there at a constant of 2 minutes,
or until the syringe has moved. (Sometimes, the syringe gets stuck in
place and it takes a while for the pressure to release and the volume to
increase.) Then, take the first volume reading and record the
temperature.
8. Raise the temperature approximately 7 to 10oC and maintain a constant
temperature for 2 minutes, or until the syringe has moved. If you
notice that the syringe hasn’t moved in those two minutes, you
may want to very gently pull on the syringe, as sometimes the
pressure will build up and not release itself back to its constant value
by moving the syringe. Record the volume of the gas and the
temperature of the water. Repeat this procedure to approximately 90
o
C.
9. Before you change lab stations, be sure to use the hot hands and dump
the water out of the beaker. The next group will need to use fresh
water. If you need assistance with the hot equipment, please have your teacher help you.

Temp.
( in oC)

Temp.
(in K)

Volume
(in mL)

DRAW A GRAPH OF VOLUME VS. TEMPERATURE.
 Turn the paper sideways so the graph is “landscape”. This will allow for an extended x-axis
(temperature)
 MAKE SURE TO CONVERT TEMPERATURE TO KELVIN FOR YOUR GRAPH!
 Include 0, 0 on your axis with no breaks in the axis. You will EXTRAPOLATE your line
through the x-axis.
 Be sure that it is properly titled, axis are labeled with the variable and appropriate units, and that a
trend line extended to the origin is included for the graph.
Page 34 of 58
Page 35 of 58
CLAIM: ____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

EVIDENCE/REASONING:
Explain the relationship from your claim in terms of space between molecules and molecular velocity.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Station 3: Gay-Lussac’s Law: Pressure vs. Temperature

The objective of this experiment is to determine the relationship between the pressure and temperature of a
confined gas. This relationship was first established by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802 and has since been
known as Gay-Lussac’s Law. Gay-Lussac was also the first to publish research based on the relationship
between volume and temperature, but gave credit for this to Charles based on earlier discussions he had with
him. Also, Gay-Lussac didn’t want TWO laws named after himself, so he decided to share some of the glory!

BEGINNING QUESTION: ______________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: ___________________________________________
DEPENDENT VARIABLE: _____________________________________________
CONTROL VARIABLES: ______________________________________________
Page 36 of 58
PROCEDURE
Prepare (or confirm availability of) four water baths at varying temperatures – 1.00 L beakers with about
600 mL of approximately 80 oC water, approximately 45 oC water, room temperature water, and ice
water. (The ice water bath does NOT have to be completely ice – about ½ water and ½ ice will be fine.)

Attach the Pressure Sensor to Channel 1 of the CBL, and the Temperature Sensor into Channel 2 of the
CBL.

Turn on the calculator and press the “Apps” button. Use arrows to highlight the EASYDATA program and
press “Enter”.

 Looking at the display at the top of the screen, the pressure should automatically come up in the
units of kPa, and the temperature should automatically come up in Celcius. If they do not, please get
your teacher.
Attach the stopper assembly to the Pressure Sensor by gently screwing it on.
 Insert the stopper assembly into a 125-mL flask. Important: Twist the stopper into the neck of the
flask for a tight fit and confirm that the hose fittings are firmly shut. Also, make sure that the
twist valve is perpendicular to the release valve opening – this will mean that the valve is closed
and no air can get in or out.

Your pressure and temperature values should be visible at the top of the screen. This is where you will look
to record your data for your table.

Holding the flask by the glass rim, carefully place the flask down into the ice-water bath. Also, place the
temperature probe into the water bath. Wait for the temperature and pressure to stabilize, and have your
partner record your data in the table.

Holding the flask by the glass rim, carefully place the flask down into the room-temperature bath. Also,
place the temperature probe into the water bath. Wait for the temperature and pressure to stabilize, and
have your partner record your data in the table.

Holding the flask by the glass rim, carefully place the flask down into the approximately 45ºC bath. Also,
place the temperature probe into the water bath. Wait for the temperature and pressure to stabilize, and
have your partner record your data in the table. BUT BE CAREFUL!!!

 Do not burn yourself with the water or the hot plates. (Use Hot Hands if needed).
 Hold the temperature probe wire and gas sensor hose away from the hot plate – THEY WILL
MELT. Have your lab partner help you!!!!
 Hold the flask by the glass lip – not the stopper. Firmly press the stopper on the flask – at higher
pressures it can pop out – and you will have to repeat your experiment.

Holding the flask by the glass rim, carefully place the flask down into the approximately 80ºC bath. Also,
place the temperature probe into the water bath. Wait for the temperature and pressure to stabilize, and
have your partner record your data in the table. BUT BE CAREFUL!!!

You may leave the water baths out for the next group, but be sure to turn off your hot plates between
groups! Make sure that NO CORDS ARE NEAR THE HOT PLATES. Also, if you are the last
group, PLEASE unplug the hot plates and dump the water baths down the sink.
Page 37 of 58
Ice Water Room Temp Approx. 45ºC Approx. 80ºC
Actual
Temperature
(in ºC)
Actual
Temperature
(in K)

Pressure
(in kPa)

DRAW A GRAPH OF PRESSURE VS. TEMPERATURE.
 Turn the paper sideways so the graph is “landscape”. This will allow for an extended x-axis
(temperature)
 MAKE SURE TO CONVERT TEMPERATURE TO KELVIN FOR YOUR GRAPH!
 Include 0, 0 on your axis with no breaks in the axis. You will EXTRAPOLATE your line
through the x-axis.
 Be sure that it is properly titled, axis are labeled with the variable and appropriate units, and that a
trend line extended to the origin is included for the graph.
Page 38 of 58
Page 39 of 58

CLAIM: ____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

EVIDENCE/REASONING:
Knowing that pressure is due to the collisions of molecules with the walls of their container, explain the
relationship from your claim in terms of molecular velocity and collisions of molecules.

NAME____________________________________________ PERIOD___________

COMING ATTRACTIONS!

A. Do we remember??

1. Compare and contrast the terms interstate and intrastate in reference to travel.

2. Apply these ideas to the concepts of intermolecular bonding and intramolecular bonding.

3. What types of intramolecular bonds did we discuss last semester?

4. Build the following molecules and draw the structural formulas. Indicate the type of intramolecular bonding is
present.

CHEMICAL CHEMICAL LEWIS DOT INTRAMOLECULAR MOLECULAR CLASSIFICATION
NAME FORMULA STRUCTURE BONDING (IONIC OR (IONIC, POLAR COVALENT,
COVALENT) NON-POLAR COVALENT

WATER

ETHANE

AMMONIA

MAGNESIUM
CHLORIDE

PHOSPHORUS
TRICHLORIDE
Page 41 of 58
B. WEB OF ENTANGLEMENT – go to the following websites and answer questions or follow instructions.

5. Go to http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objID=GCH6804. List the three types of
intermolecular forces introduced on the first slide (p. 2 of 13) of the presentation.

a. __________________________

b. __________________________

c. __________________________

6. There is a fourth type that we talked about last semester in which the intermolecular force is identical to the
intramolecular force of attraction. What is this type of force? Draw a diagram depicting this type of attraction.
HINT: Go to http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/160Aintermolec.html for ideas!

7. Go to back to http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objID=GCH6804 and answer the following:
a. (2 of 13) How does the strength of the weakest IMF compare to the typical strength of bonds between atoms
in a molecule or formula unit?

b. (2 of 13) In which state of matter do molecules experience no intermolecular forces? Why?

c. (3 of 13) What causes molecules to have a permanent, uneven distribution of charge? What is the name of
the IMF between these types of molecules?

d. (3 of 13) Create your own picture to illustrate these types of IMFs.

e. (3 of 13) In which state are these IMFs strongest and most consistent? Circle the best answer

GAS LIQUID SOLID

f. (4 of 13) Non-polar covalent molecules do not have a permanent distribution of electron density. How are
these molecules held together in the solid and liquid states?

g. (4 of 13) Describe the dipole that is formed in this type of IMF.

h. (4 of 13) Create your own picture to illustrate this types of IMFs.
Page 42 of 58
i. (5 of 13) Why can all substances experience London Dispersion intermolecular forces?

j. (5 of 13) Indicate whether the following substances experience London Dispersion forces only (LD), or both
dipole and London Dispersion IMFs (both).

CHEMICAL NAME IMF (S)
WATER

ETHANE

AMMONIA

PHOSPHORUS
TRICHLORIDE

k. (5 of 13) Is the strength of a London Dispersion Force DIRECTLY or INDIRECTLY proportional to the
molar mass of a molecule (circle the correct answer)? Why is this true?

l. (5 of 13) In each of the following examples, indicate which molecule would be expected to have the
strongest London Dispersion IMF. (Circle the correct answer)

METHANE or CYCLOBUTANE?

PHOSPHORUS TRICHLORIDE or NITROGEN TRICHLORIDE?

m. (6 & 7 of 13) How does the boiling point of water compare to that of other elements in the same group as
oxygen bonded to hydrogen? Why doesn’t water follow the predicted trend?

n. (7 of 13) What is the name of this stronger type of dipole IMF?

o. (7 of 13) Rank the following according to relative strength, assuming similar molar mass. (from weakest to
strongest): covalent bonds, dipole dipole interactions, London dispersion, hydrogen bonding

p. (10 of 13) Define viscosity and explain how intermolecular forces influence the viscosity of a substance.

8. Go to the following website. At the end of the flash presentation there are some examples. List the chemical and
write down the correct, dominant, intermolecular force. http://www7.tltc.ttu.edu/kechambe/flash/IMFPvCv41.swf
Page 43 of 58

C. Structure and Function – what role(s) do IMFs play in boiling point, melting points, and volatility.

2
9. Use intermolecular forces to explain the boiling point & melting point trends for the following halogens:

Melting Points and Boiling Points of Similar Substances with Increasing Molar Mass
Substance MM (g/mol) mp (°C) bp (°C)

F2 38 -220 -188
Cl2 71 -100.98 -34.6
Br2 160 -7.2 58.78
I2 254 113.5 184.35

10. Which of the substances above would you predict to be the most volatile? Why?

11. Use following chart and intermolecular forces to answer the questions below:

Melting Points and Boiling Points Substances with Similar Molar Mass
Substance MM (g/mol) mp (°C) bp (°C) IMF(s)

F2 38 -220 -188
NO 30 -164 -152
CH3OH 32 -94 65
Ca 40 893 1484
NaF 42 993 1695

a. Identify the type(s) of intermolecular forces involved in the liquid and solid states for each of the
substances. NOTE: calcium is tricky!

b. F2, NO, and CH3OH have similar molar mass values and thus should have similar strengths of London
Dispersion Forces. Why are the boiling points of these substances so different?

12. Use intermolecular forces to explain why the boiling point of octane (126 g/mol) is greater than that for 1-propanol
(CH3CH2CH2OH)

2
http://cost.georgiasouthern.edu/chemistry/general/molecule/forces.htm
Page 44 of 58

AP CHEMISTRY REACTION JOURNAL

I used to teach reactions as a single unit, but I have now switched to teaching them throughout the year. I have
kept the notes together as a single chapter in by notes, but only teach one at time. As soon as I teach the reactions
type, the students are given a homework assignment. I give the students quizzes once or twice a six weeks. For
their journals, the students purchase a composition notebook. I copy the attached pages on full page labels and
then cut them in half. These are put into the journal at the beginning. We then do reactions at the beginning of
most classes. Students come into class, pick up the reaction label, and work the reaction in their journal. We go
over the reaction before starting the day’s learning.
Page 45 of 58
Page 46 of 58
SOLUBILITY RULES
SOLUBLE COMPOUNDS EXCEPTIONS
SOLUBLE COMPOUNDS EXCEPTIONS All Group 1 salts None
All Group 1 salts None All ammonium (NH4+) salts None
− − − −
All ammonium (NH4+) salts None All NO3 , ClO3 , ClO4 , and C2H3O2 salts None
− − − −
All NO3 , ClO3 , ClO4 , and C2H3O2 salts None All Cl−, Br−, I− salts Ag+, Hg22+ (mercury (I)), Pb2+
All Cl−, Br−, I− salts Ag+, Hg22+ (mercury (I)), Pb2+ All F− salts Mg2+ Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2and Pb2+
All F− salts Mg2+ Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2and Pb2+ All salts of SO4 2−
Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, Ag+, Hg22+
2−
All salts of SO4 Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, Ag+, Hg22+
INSOLUBLE COMPOUNDS EXCEPTIONS
INSOLUBLE COMPOUNDS EXCEPTIONS All salts of OH− Group I, NH4+, Ba2+,
All salts of OH− Group I, NH4+, Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+
Sr2+, Ca2+ All salts of S2−, SO32−, CO32−, PO43−, CrO42− and Group I and NH4+
All salts of S2−, SO32−, CO32−, PO43−, CrO42− and Group I and NH4+ any other polyatomic not named!
any other polyatomic not named! Oxides*
Oxides*
* some of these oxides are actually “soluble” because they are basic
* some of these oxides are actually “soluble” because they are basic anhydrides and react with water to form a base: MO + H2O  M(OH).
anhydrides and react with water to form a base: MO + H2O  M(OH). More about this later!
More about this later!
STRONG ACIDS - ionize 100% in water
STRONG ACIDS - ionize 100% in water
Type Formula
Type Formula Hydrogen halides (aq) HCl HBr HI
Hydrogen halides (aq) HCl HBr HI Oxyacids of halogens HClO3 HBrO3 HIO3
Oxyacids of halogens HClO3 HBrO3 HIO3 HClO4 HBrO4 HIO4
HClO4 HBrO4 HIO4 Sulfuric (1st H+ only!!) H2SO4
Sulfuric (1st H+ only!!) H2SO4 Nitric Acid HNO3
Nitric Acid HNO3

STRONG BASE - dissociate 100% in water. All hydroxides of group I and
STRONG BASE - dissociate 100% in water. All hydroxides of group I and II except beryllium and magnesium (okay, Mg(OH)2 tends to decompose but
II except beryllium and magnesium (okay, Mg(OH)2 tends to decompose but we will neglect that little detail!)
we will neglect that little detail!)

SOLUBILITY RULES
Page 47 of 58
REDOX RULES
DOUBLE REPLACEMENT ODDITIES
How to recognize: Look for words like:
How to recognize: Ionic &/or acid with Ionic &/or acid  Acidified or acidic
 Decompose: H2CO3  H2O + CO2  Alkaline or basic
 Decompose: H2SO3  H2O + SO2  Concentrated or dilute
 Decompose: NH4OH  NH2+ H2O
 Aqueous NH3 as a reactant: WRITE NH3 + H2O THINK Oxidizing agents (ie will be reduced) Products formed
NH4OH MnO41− (acidic sol’n) Mn2+
MnO41− (neutral or basic sol’n) MnO2(s)
 MORE:
MnO2 (acidic sol’n) Mn2+
Cr2O72− (acidic sol’n) Cr3+
SINGLE REPLACEMENT ODDITIES HNO3 (concentrated) NO2
How to recognize: HNO3 (dilute) NO
a. metal plus an ionic compound H2SO4 (Concentrated, hot) SO2
b. Active metal plus water Na2O2 (peroxide) NaOH
c. Active metal plus acid H2O2 (peroxide) H2O (or HOH)
d. halogen plus an ionic halide ClO4− (In HClO4 – str acid) Cl−
e. hydrogen with an ionic compound Free Halogens (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) Halide ion
Metal-ic ions (higher oxidation state) Metal-ous ions (lower)
 Higher Oxidation States: “As Snoopy Fell, Huge Cups Cracked”
 Diatomics: “I Bring Clay For Our New House”
 MORE: Reducing Agent (ie will be oxidized) Product formed
C2O42− (oxalate ion) CO2
COMPLEX ION ODDITIES HCOOH (formic acid) CO2
H2O2 O2
How to recognize: Al or transition metal ion with a ligand such as CN─, Halide ions (F−, Cl−, Br−, I−) Free halogen
Free metals metal ion*
OH─, halogen ion, SCN─, NH3, H2O
Metal-ous Metal-ic
SO32− (sulfite) or SO2 SO42− (sulfate)
 Metal ion is the Lewis Acid NO2− (nitrite) NO3− (nitrate)
 Ligand has extra pair of electrons and is the Lewis Base Free halogens (dilute basic) ex. Cl2 Hypohalite (ClO−)
 If reactant is Al metal, H2 gas forms Free Halogens (conc. Basic) ex. Cl2 Halate ion (ClO3−)
 Fe2+ has a coordination # of “6” instead of “4”
 Fe3+ only coordinates one SCN─ (ie Fe(SCN)2+)  * “As Snoopy Fell, Huge Cups Cracked”
 Decomposition is like a double replacement with an acid  Electrolysis of pure molten 2NaCl  2Na + Cl2
 MORE:  Electrolysis of aqueous NaCl: water is electrolyzed instead
 Know the ½ rxns for water electrolysis!
Cathode (reduction): 2H2O(l) + 2e− → H2(g) + 2OH−(aq)
Anode (oxidation): 4OH−(aq) → O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e−

SYNTHESIS/COMBINATION/ADDITION
Page 48 of 58

 How to recognize:  How to recognize:

a. Element + element a. adding oxygen to a compound
b. Element + compound b. Look for words such as “burned”, “undergoes combustion”. NOTE:
c. Compound + compound You need to supply the oxygen because it will not be explicitly given!

 Phosphorus exists as the red form (P) or the white form (P4). Sulfur’s  RULES TO MEMORIZE!
most stable form is rings with eight sulfur atoms (S8)
element Most common oxygen containing cmpd
 Rules to memorize: C CO in limited oxygen
C CO2 in excess oxygen
a. Sulfur dioxide + metal oxide  metal sulfite S8 SO2 in limited oxygen (Assume if lim or xs not indicated)
b. Sulfur trioxide + metal oxide  metal sulfate S8 SO3 in excess oxygen
c. Carbon dioxide + metal oxide  metal carbonate N NO in limited oxygen
d. BX3 + NY3  X3BNY3 N NO2 in excess oxygen(Assume if lim or xs not indicated)
P4 P2O5 or P4O10
 MORE: H H2O
Metal Metallic oxide

DECOMPOSITION  More:
 How to recognize: Compound heated, often in presence of a catalyst.

 Rules to memorize:

a. Metal carbonates  metal oxides + CO2
b. Metal sulfites  metal oxides + SO2
c. Metallic chlorates  metallic chlorides + oxygen.
d. Ammonium Carbonate  ammonia + water + CO2
e. Ammonium nitrate  N2 + O2 + H2O (or N2O + H2O)
f. Hydrogen peroxide  H2O + O2
g. Carbonic acid SPONTANEOUSLY  H2O + CO2
h. Sulfurous acid SPONTANEOUSLY  H2O + SO2
i. Sodium hydrogen carbonate  sodium carbonate + CO2 + H2O

 MORE:

COMBUSTION
Page 49 of 58
ACIDS & BASES & SALT HYDROLYSIS
ANHYDRIDES
A. How to Recognize:
A. How to recognize: Anhydride means “without water” so we a. Look for an acid plus a base. This is really a subset of
are taking a substance that is without water and re-hydrating double replacement with products typically being a salt
and water.
it so to speak
b. If the acid is polyprotic, the product may still be an acid.
c. Look for the words “equal molar”, “equal volume”,
B. Rules: “same moles”, “twice the moles”, “excess”. You will
need to consider whether the acid or base is fully or
1. Metal oxides are “basic anhydrides” partially neutralized.
2. Metal oxides are “basic anhydrides”
3. Metallic hydrides plus water yield metallic BE CAREFUL! Sometimes anhydrides are mixes with acid/base
hydroxides and hydrogen gas. neutralization.
4. Phosphorus halides and phosphorus oxyhalides react
with water to produce two acids: phosphorus oxyacid CAUTION! Don’t forget to decompose H2CO3 & NH4OH if they
form in a hydrolysis reaction!
and a hydrohalic acid (HCl, HBr, HI).
5. Group I and II nitrides react with water to form a base B. Strategy
and ammonia a. Follow a similar strategy as double replacement.
6. Metal Carbides react with water to form metal b. If the words such as “equal molar” are used, then put
hydroxides and methane. the mole ratio under the species in the complete
molecular.
KEY: OXIDATION NUMBERS DO NOT CHANGE EXCEPT
THE Example: Equimolar volumes of phosphoric acid and sodium
HYDRIDES! hydroxide solutions are mixed.

CAUTION: Sometimes an anhydride will be combined with an acid H3PO4 (aq) + LiOH(aq)  LiH2PO4 (aq) + H2O
base reaction! Mole ratio: 1 1
Example Sulfur dioxide is bubbled through a solution of excess
strontium hydroxide. H3PO4 + OH−  H2PO4− + H2O

SO2 + H2O + Sr(OH)2 (aq)  H2SO3 + Sr(OH)2 (aq)  SrSO3 (s) + H2O
NOTES:

SO2 + H2O + Sr2+ + OH− (aq)  H2SO3 + Sr(OH)2 (aq)   H3PO4 weak
SrSO3 (s) + H2O  +
LiOH strong, Li spectator
 −
One OH can only neutralize one H
+
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Page 51 of 58
NAME_________________________________ PERIOD___________

PERIODIC TRENDS – TEST Grade

You need to get laptops and a textbook. You may work in PAIRS.

Introduction – read carefully!
In the late 1800’s, Dmitrii Mendeleev first proposed a table in which the elements are arranged
according to physical and chemical properties. This table has been modified since that time, but
physical and chemical properties can still be predicted using the periodic table. Trends in various
properties can be observed both across periods and down groups. However, deviations from the trends
may occur in a variety of properties. These variations can usually be explained by electron-electron
repulsion, nucleus-electron attraction, or shielding. Electron configuration and orbital diagrams are
helpful tools to help determine the primary effects involved in the trends as well as deviations from the
trend.
In this activity, a computer program will be used to explore the periodic trends of the following
properties: Atomic size, ionic radii, ionization energy, electron affinity, and oxidation numbers. These
trends will be explained in terms of the structure of the atoms. Since structure determines function, a
complete understanding of how the structure of the atom affects the function of the atom will complete
our study of atomic structure.
Exact values of atomic size are difficult to determine because atomic wavefunctions describe
probability distributions and do not have sharp boundaries. Atomic radii can be estimated from data on
bond lengths me measuring the interatomic distance and dividing by two. Even though data from
various methods of measurement can vary, the trends can be studied as long as the atomic radii were all
determined by the same method. These values are usually reported in pm, which is equal to 10-12 m.
The ionization energy is the energy that is required to remove an electron from an atom in the
gaseous phase. The 1st and 2nd ionization energies will be graphed. During the analysis, be cognizant
of from which orbital an electron is being removed and whether or not the sublevel is full or half-full. It
is not sufficient to explain a trend by stating the sublevel is “full” or “half-full”. Use forces of attraction
and repulsion along with shielding and effective nuclear charge (Zeff).
The electron affinity is a measure of the energy involved in the process of adding an electron to
an atom in the gaseous phase. The electron affinity is strongly affected by the effective nuclear charge.
Be careful interpreting electron affinity! A high electron affinity indicates the addition is exothermic
and thus has a negative value. A low electron affinity has a positive value.

Procedure

Start up the computer and sign on. When the computer asks for a windows password, select
“cancel”. Go to www.webelements.com and select the periodicity tab. If you are asked to make
comparisons, do the graphs separately and note the scale on the y-axis. It is not necessary to print the
graphs. You can also view the trend directly on the periodic table. Explore the program to see what
works best for your.
All trends and deviations from trends should be explained in terms of the electron configuration,
shielding, effective nuclear charge, and the structure of the atom. Sample electron configurations and/or
orbital diagrams should be used to support the answer. You may use the noble gas configuration for
both.

Dena K. Leggett & Alicia Marusik, Allen High School, Allen, TX 75002
Page 52 of 58

Introductory Terms & Concepts
1. Describe the two types of forces that are balanced in the ground state arrangement of electrons
around the nucleus

2. Use arrows to diagram these inter-particle forces for the Lithium atom. The helium atom shown
on the left provides a model for you.

─

Z:
+2
─

3. Define the following terms
a. “SHIELDING” ( see figure for hints and
http://facultyfp.salisbury.edu/dfrieck/htdocs/212/rev/zeff/shielding.htm )

b. Effective nuclear charge (Wikipedia.org)

c. Valence electrons (p.321)

d. Core electrons (p.321)

4. Draw the electron configuration for tin and indicate the core and valence electrons.

5. Calculate the effective nuclear charge for tin.

Dena K. Leggett & Alicia Marusik, Allen High School, Allen, TX 75002
Page 53 of 58
6. Would shielding have a greater effect across a period or down a group? Explain.

7. Define and write a generalized equation for the following:
a. Ionization energy (Zumdahl p.327)

b. Electron Affinity (Zumdahl p.330)

8. Compare and contrast the terms “electron affinity” and “electronegativity”

ELECTRON AFFINITY ELECTRONEGATIVITY (p.352-355)

9. Will attraction to the nucleus tend to increase or decrease each of the following? Explain
a. The size of an atom

b. The ionization energy

c. The electron affinity

10. Will repulsion between electrons tend to increase or decrease each of the following? Explain
a. The size of an atom

b. The ionization energy

c. The electron affinity

Dena K. Leggett & Alicia Marusik, Allen High School, Allen, TX 75002
Page 54 of 58

Analysis
Atomic Radii
11. How are atomic radii measured (Zumdahl p. 332)?

12. Use the program to graph the atomic radii for groups 2 and 17 (or 7A). (you do not need to print
the graph). Describe the trend in the values and provide an explanation for each trend based on
atomic structure (include a sketch of an energy level diagram as part of your explanation!).

13. Graph atomic radii data for period 4 or 5. Describe and explain the periodic trend.

14. Sketch out an energy level diagram and use the diagram to explain why the difference in atomic
radii between rubidium and potassium is less than the difference between sodium and lithium.

Ionic Radii

15. Graph the atomic radii and the ionic radii on the same graph for each of the groups 2 and 17 (or
7A).
a) Describe the general trends for each.

b) Fill out the following chart. Is the ionic radius larger or smaller than the atomic radii for
cations? Why?

Particle Electron configuration Outer electron
config.
Sr

Sr2+

Question answer:

Dena K. Leggett & Alicia Marusik, Allen High School, Allen, TX 75002
Page 55 of 58
c) Fill out the following chart. Is the ionic radius larger or smaller than the atomic radii for
negative ions? Why?

Particle Orbital diagram for n=3 & n=4 electrons
Br

Br─

Question answer:

d) Write the complete electron configurations for the following ions. Use proton:electron ratios
to rank the ions from smallest (1) to largest (5). The first one has been completed for you.
Justify your prediction.

ION ELECTRON CONFIGURATION p/e- ratio RANK
15
P3─ 1s22s22p63s23p6 18

S2─

Cl─

K+

Ca2+
JUSTIFICATION

Ionization Energies
16. Graph the 1st ionization energy for period 3.
a) Describe and explain the trend.

b) Write the complete electron configuration and the orbital diagram for Mg and Al and explain
the anomaly (a deviation from the common rule or trend) observed between Mg and Al

c) Write the complete electron configuration and the orbital diagram for N and O and explain
the anomaly observed between N and O.

Dena K. Leggett & Alicia Marusik, Allen High School, Allen, TX 75002
Page 56 of 58
17. Graph the 1st ionization energy for groups 2 and 16. Describe and explain the trend observed.
Are there exceptions?

18. Graph the 2nd ionization energy for groups 1, 2, and 13. Note the range of the y-axis so you can
compare the three groups. Why is there such a large difference in group 1 compared to groups 2
and 13?

GROUP ORBITAL DIAGRAMS (for at least the last two IDENTITY OF e─
sublevels) for a representative element. BEING REMOVED
1 (1A)

2 (2A)

13 (3A)

Explanation of difference:

19. Write reaction equations for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd , and 4th ionization for arsenic. Based on the trend
observed on p.327 for aluminum, where would you predict the major increase in ionization
energy to occur for arsenic? Why?

IONIZATION IONIZATION REACTION
1ST

2ND

3RD

4TH

QUESTION ANSWER:

Oxidation Numbers
Go to the “Options” window and select “element info”. This will select the properties that will be
displayed when you select an element from the periodic table. Set it so oxidation states will be
displayed.

Dena K. Leggett & Alicia Marusik, Allen High School, Allen, TX 75002
Page 57 of 58
20. Explain the common oxidation numbers listed below using electron configurations.

Element ION e─ (s) removed
(configuration)
K +1
Mn +2
+5
+7
As -3
+3
+5
Br -1
+5
+7

21. Note the minimum (lowest) oxidation numbers for elements in period 2. Explain the
observations in terms of the electron configurations.

Electron affinity
NOTE: Electron affinity is a measure of the actual energy involved in the process. A negative value is
exothermic and a positive value is endothermic. Since exothermic processes are FAVORABLE, as the
VALUE for the electron affinity becomes more NEGATIVE, the element is said to have a HIGHER
affinity. Seems a little flip-flopped! When in doubt – look for fluorine – the element that has a strong
affinity for electrons.

22. Graph the electron affinity values for period 3. What is the general trend? Explain the
difference observed between the following pairs of elements.

GENERAL TREND:

Pair Difference
K and Ca
Cu and Ga
Br and Kr

23. Graph the electron affinity values for period 2. Explain the difference in values between carbon
and nitrogen.

Dena K. Leggett & Alicia Marusik, Allen High School, Allen, TX 75002
Page 58 of 58
24. Graph the values for group 1. Why does the value for the electron affinity decrease as the atomic
number is increased in this group?

25. Graph the values for groups 15 and 17. Describe the trends.

26. How is electron affinity related to the effective nuclear charge?

27. Compare this with the relationship between ionization energy and Zeff

Dena K. Leggett & Alicia Marusik, Allen High School, Allen, TX 75002