Walden University
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
This is to certify that the doctoral study by
Jennifer Stephens
has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects,
and that any and all revisions required by
the review committee have been made.
Review Committee
Dr. Pamela Harrison, Committee Chairperson, Education Faculty
Dr. Daniel Baer, Committee Member, Education Faculty
Dr. Robert McClure, University Reviewer, Education Faculty
Chief Academic Officer
David Clinefelter, Ph.D.
Walden University
2010
Abstract
The Adult Student Learning Experience:
A Mixed-Methods Investigation in a Marine Corps Program
From a Knowledge Management Perspective
by
Jennifer Gray Stephens
M.Ed., University of Maryland University College, 2004
B.S., Old Dominion University, 2002
Project Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Education
Administrator Leadership
Walden University
August 2010
Abstract
On one Marine Corps base, a minimum of 5% of adult enlisted Marines per year lack certain
competencies and seek admittance into a high school competency remediation program. The
lack of these competencies impedes qualification for many military occupational specialties,
the ability to convert from an enlisted Marine to a Warrant Officer, or scoring well on entry-
level college-placement tests. Utilizing Lave and Wenger’s theory of legitimate peripheral
participation through communities of practice (CoP), this mixed-methods, grounded-theory
study employed a sequential exploratory strategy utilizing qualitative interviews and a
quantitative survey to answer a research question involving understanding what is needed in
the area of learning fundamentals and learning assistance from the Marine Corps that would
help improve learning and academic success from an adult student perspective. Analysis of
the qualitative data entailed coding themes. Analysis of the quantitative data was
accomplished by analyzing the measures of central tendency. The most common qualitative
findings indicated a lack of dedicated websites providing online training materials, hands-on
equipment, updated content, and accommodation of various learning styles. Analysis of
quantitative data suggested that the participants embrace technology use and that they desire
online communities to aid them in their quest for knowledge and success. Online CoP can
provide Marines with just-in-time collaborative learning opportunities to enhance knowledge
and student achievement, thus promoting positive social change. Research in this area would
be significant to all military services as well as to public and private educators who seek to
enhance student learning opportunities and achievement through knowledge-management
tools, including the development of online CoP.
The Adult Student Learning Experience:
A Mixed-Methods Investigation in a Marine Corps Program
From a Knowledge Management Perspective
by
Jennifer Gray Stephens
M.Ed., University of Maryland University College, 2004
B.S., Old Dominion University, 2002
Project Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Education
Administrator Leadership
Walden University
August 2010
UMI Number: 3412517
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Dedication
This doctoral study is dedicated first, to my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ.
Without Him, I could not have achieved this goal. “I can do all things through Christ
who strengthens me” (Philippians 4:13).
I dedicate this study to my greatest joy, my loving son Dawson, whom I have
raised as a single parent for the past 9 years. I pray that this journey that we have both
been a part of will encourage you to aim high in all of your aspirations and remind you
that your dream is the promise of all you can become. Even at a young age, you have
understood the importance of this goal and tried to comfort me when I felt overwhelmed
by my load of responsibilities. I smile as I recall my oral proposal for this study. I had
explained the importance of complete silence during that time. You made a poster with
magic markers and held it up in front of me during the orals that read “Can I flush the
toilet, or is that too much noise?” I completely lost my thought process, but I was again
reminded how caring and supportive that you are. Know that regardless of situation,
perseverance, dedication, and faith are keys to success. Hold on tight to your dreams.
You are my sunshine in life, and I thank God every day for the greatest gift ever given to
me . . . You. I love you.
In loving memory of my dad, Robert Scott Stephens, who passed away 3 months
after I began this journey. He was my biggest supporter in all of my educational
endeavors, and I missed being able to share my frustrations and joys along the way with
him. I know that he is smiling down on me, proud of this achievement that I promised
him I would reach. He supported me in spirit throughout this entire scholarly journey.
To my mother, Oneida Stephens, who has been my rock in life: Thank you for
encouraging me in all aspects of my life and believing in me. You are truly an inspiration
to me, and I am blessed to have you as my mother. You are my hero. I love you.
To my brother, Mark, and sister, Cindy, thank you for your encouragement in this
endeavor and believing in me.
Finally, this study is dedicated to all uniformed men and women to whom my
entire working career of the past 23 years of government civil service has been dedicated.
It is my hope that positive change will come to you through this work.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to my committee chair, Dr.
Pamela Harrison, whose wisdom always kept me on the right track. You encouraged me
to be my best and held me to high standards. I was blessed to have you as my chair.
Thank you for having faith in me. Without you, I would have been lost.
I greatly appreciate Dr. Daniel Baer, who provided me with valuable guidance
and instruction. You were always available for questions and advice when needed. Your
words of encouragement pushed me along. Thank you for being so supportive.
I would like to thank Dr. Robert McClure, who posed questions encouraging me
to truly reflect on my writing and experiences through this journey. I appreciate your
wisdom, support, and encouraging words throughout this process.
I would like to thank my boss, Kevin Scott, who has taught me more in the past 9
months while working for him than any former boss. Having been an officer in the
Marine Corps, you understood the importance of this study and the need for positive
social change. You encouraged me to go forth and do great things for Marines. Being a
subject matter expert in the many facets of training, your stories, wisdom, advice, and
support is more than any employee could expect from a mentor. You are a true teacher
and a true leader.
I would like to thank Patricia Sullivan. You have been there since this scholarly
journey began. During my work conversion, you helped me get back on track. Having
retired as a master gunnery sergeant, and being a subject-matter expert in the many facets
of training and knowledge management, you were always there to provide wonderful
advice. Your unbridled passion in righting wrong has always been an inspiration to me.
Thank you for your patience, encouragement, words of wisdom, and support. Your
friendship is cherished.
I would like to thank Susan McIntosh and Barb Castillo of the Lifelong Learning
Center, who provided support and patience with me during my research in their facility.
You provided great insight into the problem and encouraged my study. Thank you for
dedicating your time in helping Marines succeed.
Finally, I would like to thank CW05 Herbie Morris and MSgt Michael Jackson,
who spent their time discussing this study and its implications for positive social change
for Marines. Your wisdom and insight provided me with even more inspiration for this
study.
Table of Contents
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................v
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi
Section 1: The Problem........................................................................................................1
Introduction....................................................................................................................1
Problem Statement .........................................................................................................5
Background of the Problem ...........................................................................................6
Rationale ......................................................................................................................10
Evidence of the Problem at the Local Level......................................................... 10
Evidence of the Problem From the Professional Literature.................................. 12
Definitions....................................................................................................................14
Significance..................................................................................................................16
Implications for Social Change....................................................................................17
Guiding Research Question .........................................................................................18
Review of the Literature ..............................................................................................19
Theory of Legitimate Peripheral Participation in CoP ......................................... 20
Broadening Learning Experiences........................................................................ 26
Evidence of the Problem in Educational Case Studies and Other Services.......... 27
Implications..................................................................................................................30
Summary ......................................................................................................................31
Section 2: The Methodology..............................................................................................34
Introduction..................................................................................................................34
i
Mixed-Methods Research Design and Approach ........................................................35
Setting and Sample ......................................................................................................39
Context and Sequential Strategy..................................................................................43
Qualitative Sequence ............................................................................................ 43
Quantitative Sequence .......................................................................................... 44
Data Analysis and Validation Procedures....................................................................47
Qualitative Analysis and Validation ..................................................................... 47
Quantitative Analysis and Validation ................................................................... 48
Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative Findings ........................................... 49
Protection of Participants.............................................................................................49
Results From Qualitative Data.....................................................................................50
Interview Question 4............................................................................................. 51
Interview Question 5............................................................................................. 52
Interview Question 6............................................................................................. 57
Interview Question 7............................................................................................. 61
Interview Question 8............................................................................................. 63
Interview Question 9............................................................................................. 65
Interview Question 10........................................................................................... 65
Quantitative Data .........................................................................................................67
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................73
Section 3: The Project........................................................................................................77
Introduction..................................................................................................................77
ii
Review of the Literature ..............................................................................................81
KM……….. .......................................................................................................... 82
CoP……................................................................................................................ 85
Recommendation of the Project...................................................................................96
Needed Resources, Existing Support, and Potential Barriers ............................... 98
Proposal for Implementation............................................................................... 101
Roles and Responsibilities .................................................................................. 104
Project Evaluation Plan..............................................................................................104
Project Implications Including Social Change...........................................................108
Summary ....................................................................................................................110
Section 4: Reflections and Conclusion ............................................................................114
Introduction................................................................................................................114
Strengths in Addressing the Problem.........................................................................115
Limitations in Addressing the Problem .....................................................................116
Recommendations to Address the Problem Differently ............................................117
Scholarship Analysis..................................................................................................118
Development and Evaluation Analysis......................................................................120
Leadership and Change Analysis...............................................................................121
Self-Analysis..............................................................................................................123
Reflection on Importance of Work ............................................................................125
Future Research Implications and Applications ........................................................126
References........................................................................................................................128
iii
Appendix A: Proposed Project Sample CoP....................................................................142
Appendix B: Letter of Cooperation With MASP ............................................................150
Appendix C: Consent Form for Participants....................................................................151
Appendix D: Student Interview Questions ......................................................................153
Appendix E: Student Survey............................................................................................154
Appendix F: Department of Navy IRB Approval............................................................157
Appendix G: IRB Materials Approval.............................................................................158
Appendix H: Notification of Approval to Conduct Research..........................................160
Curriculum Vitae .............................................................................................................161
iv
List of Tables
Table 1. Summary of Recommendations per Student (Interview Question 10) ............... 68
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Survey Responses....................................................... 69
v
List of Figures
Figure 1. Ages of participants........................................................................................... 42
Figure 2. Sample of community of practice (CoP) development. .................................... 97
Figure 3. Motor Transport (35) SharePoint site................................................................ 99
Figure 4. Community of practice technical features....................................................... 103
vi
1
Section 1: The Problem
Introduction
The information age is transforming the way knowledge is acquired and
experienced. Every day, knowledge is combined, generated, used, transferred, codified,
and saved (Krings, 2006). Krings reported that with the introduction of the World Wide
Web at the beginning of the 1990s, new modes of production of knowledge were globally
enabled. Henri and Pudelko (2003) suggested that technology and cyberspace have
enabled gatherings called virtual communities, specifically, communities of practice
(CoP), and “the destiny of human society is from now on dependent” (p. 474) on virtual
communities. Learning organizations are reinventing education with the emergence of e-
technology, just-in-time access, and virtual communities (Rao, 2005) because these tools
provide unlimited sources of knowledge (Dalkir, 2005; Gamble & Blackwell, 2004). As
a result, Thitithananon and Klaewthanong (2007) suggested, “Knowledge transmission
patterns within academic organizations must develop and change the education systems
in order for information to be effectively transmitted” (p. 1). Thitithananon and
Klaewthanong concluded, “Consequently, Knowledge Management (KM) is becoming a
perfect education development tool” (p. 1). Yet, there is a lack of research in the area of
increasing student achievement as measured through online CoP usage.
Daniels, Grove, and Mundt (2006) illustrated that CoP have resided in
organizations as a strategic advantage used by many business leaders for years for
employee learning, sharing knowledge, innovation, and product improvement. Hewlett
Packard’s naming convention for their CoP is learning communities, Xerox Corporation
2
uses family groups, World Bank uses thematic groups, British Petroleum uses peer
groups, and Chrysler coined their communities as tech clubs (Daniels et al., 2006, p. 54).
The authors observed that the naming conventions are different even though they serve
the same functions.
Educational organizations are discovering what businesses have accomplished in
the area of CoP, a key area of discussion in KM literature and research. Wenger (2004)
asserted, “Communities of practice are the cornerstones of knowledge management” (p.
1). KM encompasses people, processes, innovation, knowledge sharing, capture of
collective expertise, and delivery of knowledge in some organized format for reuse and
sustainable knowledge and value (Allee, 2003; Dalkir, 2005; Kidwell, Vander Linde, &
Johnson, 2000; Muthukumar & Hedberg, 2005; Rao, 2005). Gamble and Blackwell
(2004) viewed KM as a way to “make knowledge operate more efficiently” (p. 39). They
stressed that although effective KM practices cannot guarantee success, they do improve
the odds of a successful outcome.
As a government civilian, employed by the Department of the Navy (DoN) in
many capacities of military training, the assertions made in this project study about the
Marine Corps are common knowledge to Marines. It is also common knowledge to other
DoN employees involved with military training. The information has been gleaned from
my years of professional experience.
The DoN encompasses all Navy and Marine Corps major commands and agencies
under their hierarchy. Within this hierarchical structure is the responsibility for all
enlisted and officer student training and education within those services. In a KM
3
strategy memorandum distributed to the major commands and agencies, the DoN (2005)
defined KM as “the integration of people and processes, enabled by technology, to
facilitate the exchange of operationally relevant information and expertise to increase
organizational performance” (p. 1). The DoN vision of KM was to “create, capture,
share, and reuse knowledge to enable effective and agile decision-making, increase the
efficiency of task accomplishment, and improve mission effectiveness” (p. 1). The DoN
memorandum suggested, “KM fosters collaboration across organizational boundaries,
time and space, and links people who have the requisite tacit and explicit knowledge with
those who need it to do their job” (p. 1). Thus, effective KM practices can yield positive
improvements.
To help explain the importance of KM and how the Marine Corps could benefit,
the DoN (2005) memorandum suggested, “Sharing what one knows is intuitive. This is
particularly true within the Navy and Marine Corps, where teamwork is held in the
highest regard” (p. 1). A two-tiered approach was outlined: (a) Utilize KM
methodologies and acquire tools to improve processes and knowledge to those in charge
of making decisions and (b) integrate KM into the day-to-day operations of each level of
the Marine Corps and Navy commands. Similarly, Rosenberg (2006) emphasized that
training on its own cannot fulfill all of the needs of a learner, and a broader set of
solutions is required.
During the next year, the DoN infused new KM workers into the commands;
however, these workers did not have a formal federal program in place directing how to
specifically utilize KM in the Marine Corps and Navy training organizations. The 2005
4
memorandum discussed the need for commands to explore KM integration in operational
and business processes, to teach the benefits of KM, and to capture and share best
practices and lessons learned across the services. The DoN (2005) memorandum further
stated, “The DoN strongly supports the use of KM principles and methodologies as an
enabler to improve warfighting and business processes” (p. 4). Because of the lack of
specific direction, both Navy and Marine Corps commands independently implemented
KM into their organizational structures in the best way possible, which was dependant on
the specific needs of the organization.
In 2008, a DoN Revolution in Training study (Navy Manpower, Personnel,
Training, & Education [MPTE], 2008) recommended using KM to provide relevant,
timely, and available upon demand information. The study also included an extensive
review of current and emergent learning practices within academia, industry, vocational,
and technical education in order to identify the most effective learning strategies for use
in benchmarking training. A significant future capability finding reported from the Navy
MPTE indicated that CoP have the potential to serve as media for collaborative learning.
Military students are responsible for an extraordinary amount of knowledge and
skills in order to become highly qualified to perform their jobs. The DoN is engaged in
armed conflict and in a period characterized by continuous military engagement, which
increases a service member’s mental and physical contributions. In turn, these service
members’ methods of knowledge delivery and ways to access knowledge must increase
as well. In spite of this, the integration of CoP with embedded KM tools to enhance
student learning and collaboration is an area that has not been formally developed by the
5
DoN. There is no model for KM practitioners to follow that combines these KM uses
with future capabilities.
One of the biggest challenges for the services is the necessity to be more efficient
and effective in the ability to train and teach personnel. The Marine Corps 2025 Vision
and Strategy document stated, “We must train and educate Marines at all levels on the
challenges and opportunities presented by the Information Age so that it becomes
inherent in everything we do” (Conway, 2007, p. 19). Conway further suggested,
“Regardless of opportunity to attend resident education