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Formica® Solid Surfacing
Sheet Material
Fabrication Manual
Formica limited, Coast Road, North Shields, Tyne & Wear NE29 8RE. Tel, 0191 259 3000, Fax,
0191 258 2719.
Formica and the Formica logo are registered trademarks of the Diller Corporation.
General Information 1 of 2
Composition. Characteristics.
Formica® Solid Surf acing is composite material Solid Surf acing is resistant to stains, moisture,
comprising approximately two thirds aluminium heat* and thermal shock. It has good colour
hydroxide and one third high-quality proprietary stability, is easy to clean and maintain and is
polymer made of polyester and acrylic, to which saf e f or f ood contact applications.
small quantities of dye pigments have been
added. *Pans and casserole dishes can reach very
high temperatures which can damage any
working surf ace. They should theref ore always
Product range. be placed on suitable heat resistant mats or
Solid Surf acing sheet sizes. trivets and NEVER directly onto the worktop
3683 x 760 x 12mm surf ace.
3683 x 915 x 12mm
2490 x 760 x 6mm Transport.
Check range brochure f or list of design and Solid Surf acing sheets can be transported lying
available sizes. f lat on a clean well-supported padded surf ace,
or on their edges if suitably protected.
Weight of material. Finished parts such as f abricated tops should
6mm = 11.13 Kgs/SqM be transported on edge, braced to prevent
12mm = 21.87 Kgs / SqM movement and reduce vibration and well
padded to prevent damage.
Timber strips secured to the underside of the
top will prevent f lexing during shipment. Weak
Formed parts.
points such as areas around cut-outs must be
Solid Surf acing sinks and vanity bowls
suitably reinf orced.
complete the range. Because of the special
It is important to protect the surf ace using
material composition with high acrylic content,
suitable packing materials such as corrugated
Solid Surf acing bowls have excellent hot water
cardboard or bubble wrap.
and bleach resistance and will not crack.
Foam wedges, plastic protectors, or thick
cardboard should be used to protect corners
and edges.
Suitable handling equipment such as suction
devices should be used f or loading and
unloading individual sheets and f abricated tops.
2
General information 2 of 2
Storage. Workshop Conditions.
Solid Surf acing sheets should be stored on a For Solid Surf acing f abrication the workshop
f lat surf ace, or supported with at least three should be at an even temperature of 17ºC to
cantilever-rack arms. 18mm thick plywood or 23ºC. Below 17ºC adhesive cure times will be
particleboard MUST be placed under the extended and joint strengths may be seriously
sheets to create to equally distribute the af f ected.
weight.
The workshop should be isolated f rom
If sheets are stored individually they MUST be associated activities such as laminate
well supported to prevent sagging and warping. f abrication and general joinery and have good
Do not put long sheets on top of short ones. natural light and ventilation.
Bowls and sinks may be stacked in their boxes,
up to six boxes high. Dust extraction is an important consideration.
Fixed machinery should be on a main system,
All Solid Surf acing products MUST be with portable units f or hand power tools.
protected against f rost during storage.
When working with Solid Surf acing a dust
mask, saf ety glasses or goggles and
disposable rubber gloves should be worn.
Handling.
Solid Surf acing sheet material are heavy. The workshop will need to have an adequate
Saf ety shoes should be worn. Carry sheets supply of “G” and sash cramps and although
on edge and, to avoid chipping and scuf fing, do not essential, a compressed air supply is
not drop, drag or scrape sheets. recommended to drive pneumatic sanders f or
wet sanding of Solid Surf acing.
Easy access f or loading f inished components is
also an important f actor.
3
Fabrication 1 of 4
General Colour and Matching.
Solid Surf acing can be cut, drilled, routed, If the project requires two or more sheets of
inlaid and polished using normal woodworking the same colour or pattern to be joined
machinery, with (TCT) Tungsten Carbide together in the same plane, the sheets must be
Tipped saws and cutters. obtained f rom the same batch run to assure a
colour match and/ or pattern compatibility. The
Solid Surf acing can be butt-jointed giving the production batch numbers runs consecutive,
appearance of a seamless surf ace and f ormed i.e. XXXX050 - XXXX051 etc, Sheets selected
parts can be f itted f lush creating a completely f rom dif ferent batches will not be guaranteed to
monolithic ef f ect. be colour / pattern matched. Also, since all
sheets in a batch are the same size, sheets of
Unique ef f ects can be achieved in combination dif f erent size and thickness will not be
with other materials, such as wood, metal, guaranteed to match.
ceramic tiles, and a wide range of Formica® Even though sheets are f rom the same batch, it
laminates. is recommended that the protective f ilms be
removed to check f or colour match and or
pattern compatibility bef ore f abricating. To do
Checking the Material. this, butt the sheets to be seamed and visually
All materials MUST be checked on arrival f or inspect under good light. Also, inspect each
damage and completeness of delivery, bef ore sheet f or def ects and shipping or handling
starting work a check must be made f or f aults damage.
and colour compatibility. Solid Surf acing sheets and f ormed parts of
the same colour or pattern are not guaranteed
to match. Visually inspect f or suitability
between sheets and shapes bef ore f abrication.
When the Solid Surf acing installation is
f inished, provide the homeowner with a
sizeable piece ( eg, sink or hob cut-out) of the
matching material. This assures that a
matching piece will be available if later repairs
are needed.
4
Fabrication 2 of 4
Cutting and Machining. Routing.
Being a heavy product, all but initial sizing cuts Grooves, rebates and mouldings may be
are best perf ormed by taking hand power tools applied to Solid Surf acing using hand held,
to the job. This reduces the risk of handling CNC or conventional woodworking routers.
damage. The majority of machining operations
on Solid Surf acing can be carried out with hand Hand held routers with a variable speed control
tools, without the need to manhandle the and a power rating of not less than 1800 watts
product. are recommended. Router cutters MUST be
Solid Surf acing may be cut and shaped with TCT or PCD spiral or twin f lute. Only nylon or
conventional woodworking tools and Ti-Tire bearing guides should be used, and
equipment, all saw blades and router cutters NOT f ixed pin guides. Bearing guides must be
must be TCT. For long or constant repetitive kept clean and f reely rotating to avoid marking
use, diamond (PCD) tooling will give much the Solid Surf acing material.
longer lif e between sharpening and may prove
more economic. Heavy cuts are best taken in several small
operations to avoid overloading cutters and
Sawing. machines. Always f eed slowly at a constant
Circular saw blades should have a triple chip speed and avoid pausing mid-cut, as this will
tooth prof ile and a 5º negative hook. Typically, leave bruise marks, particularly on mouldings.
a 300 Ø blade should have 96 teeth and a kerf Ensure all tooling are sharp.
of 3.2mm. Make sure the f ence is parallel with
the saw and allow 15-25mm of saw projection Spindle moulders can also be used f or edge
above the surf ace of the Solid Surf acing sheets milling and shaping of Solid Surf acing,
cutting f ace side up. Best results are obtained although the weight and f lexibility of the
at a speed of 3000-3500RPM. product may make it dif f icult to control in large
Hand held circular saws may be used f or rough sizes. The use of auto power f eeds are
cuts, but an allowance should be made f or recommended.
trimming. Cut f ace side down.
Curved cuts may be made with either a jig -saw
or band saw, allowing 3-6mm f or subsequent
trimming with a router. Jig-saws must be held
down f irmly onto the Solid Surf acing to avoid
hammering which can cause bruising. When
band-sawing use a metal cutting blade. In all
sawing operations the f eed speed should be
reduced to allow the saw to cut properly.
5
Fabrication 3 of 4
Drilling. Finishing ( Sanding and Polishing)
Holes may be bored in or through Solid Solid Surf acing sheets are f inished to a satin
Surf acing with normal HSS metal-working (semi-gloss) f inish when supplied. But as a
drills. HSS hole-saws or TCT lip and spur drills. result of f abrication and installation operations,
Alternatively, holes may be plunged with a or simply by choice, it may be necessary to re
router and suitable cutter. f inish the surf ace. There are three basic
f inishes that can be applied; Matt, Semi-gloss
Drill speeds should be reduced to those and Gloss.
recommended f or metal. Hole saws up to
19mm should be run at 500-600rpm and up to Under normal circumstances, begin by sanding
95mm at 400 rpm. Holes over 100mm Ø the entire element with 120 grit paper. In
should be cut with a router and template. Holes instances where there has been no prior
that are visible on both sides of the Solid f abrication of the sheet, it is possible to start
Surf acing sheet should be drilled f orm both with 320-400 grit.
sides to avoid breakout.
Be sure to use good extraction systems at all
Screwing. times when sanding, this will help pick up loose
Never, screw directly into Solid Surf acing particles of grit and prevent unwanted
material Screw connections should only be scratching. It is also recommended to wear
made with brass threaded inserts. dust masks during this operation.
Build up to f iner and f iner levels of grit size
paper, taking care to clean down between each
change with a damp cloth. Finish with 600 grit
paper.
To improve the gloss level of the surf ace use
1200 grit wet and dry, Scotchbrite pads, or
polishing pastes available f rom Farecla or 3M.
Keep the sander moving slowly at all times,
f irst in an East - West direction then North -
South.
Never concentrate on one specif ic area,
particularly near seams, as this can lead to
dipping of the surf ace.
6
Fabrication 4 of 4
Techniques for finishing
Solid Surf acing sheets and f ormed parts, (i.e. sinks & vanity bowls) are f inished to a satin f inish in the
f actory but f abrication and installation operations, as well as customer selection of other f inishes,
make it necessary f or the f abricator and installer to adjust the f inal f inish bef ore the job is handed
over.
There are three basic f inishes that are used with Solid Surf acing sheet material. Each of these have
certain advantages and disadvantages which should be seriously considered by the customer
f or their particular application. These f inishes, their properties and how they can be obtained and
maintained are described in the table below.
7
Adhesive Bonding 1 of 2
The Solid Surf acing adhesive system consists The Solid Surf acing adhesive is a closed
of an application gun and various two -chamber cartridge system in which the cartridge is
cartridges (transparent or coloured adhesive closed again af ter use and can be re-used.
plus hardener) with mixing nozzles MCX 08 Remove the used mixing nozzle and screw the
18. original cap into place.If the work / bonding is
Cartridges should be stored vertically, in interrupted the adhesive will start to react in the
original packaging with nozzle end up, away nozzle, and the f irst 20cm of adhesive should
f rom direct sunlight and below 24ºC. To be discarded bef ore using the gun again. If the
prolong shelf lif e store in a dark cool place, adhesive remains within the nozzle f or longer
below 12ºC. Use adhesive within 12 months of than 10 - 20 minutes the nozzle must be
purchase. Outdated adhesive may become changed. Solid Surf acing adhesive has a
thicker and have a reduced working lif e. working lif e / open assembly time of 12 to 15
The adhesive is applied using the special minutes at 21ºC. At warmer temperatures the
application gun in conjunction with the working time are reduced.
appropriate two-chamber cartridge and mixing All materials being worked on, i.e. Solid
nozzle. Af ter f itting the cartridge into the gun, Surf acing sheets and adhesive, must be at the
remove the stopper and f it the mixing nozzle. same working temperature, which must not be
Activating the lever several times causes the below 17ºC. All surf aces to be bonded must be
pressure rod to move into the cartridge and sanded with 120 grit sandpaper, (all dirt, pencil
carries the adhesive (component 1) and the marks, etc. must be removed) and cleaned with
hardener (component 2) into the nozzle where alcohol using a clean cloth.
the two components are mixed to f orm the When bonding Solid Surf acing materials to one
f inished adhesive. Suf f icient pressure must another, apply an adhesive bead to only one
build up to achieve an optimum mix, theref ore side of the parts to be bonded. Apply sufficient
the mixer point must not be cut to give even adhesive so that an over spill occurs along the
greater volume f low. joint, but do not apply so much pressure that all
PRESS OUT AND DISCARD APPROXIMATEL Y 1 the adhesive is pressed out. Apply a suf f icient
NOZZLE LENGTH OF ADHESIVE, ONLY number of cramps to ensure good even
THEN COMMENCE BONDING
pressure along the f ull length of the joint.
Cramps must be applied within two minutes
af ter the adhesive has been dispensed.
Surf aces f or bonding must be properly wetted
with adhesive and it is important to ensure that
skinning of the adhesive has taken place.
Cramps should be lef t in place as long as
possible.
8
Adhesive Bonding 2 of 2
A minimum of two hour is required f or general
handling, but hardening continues long af ter this
time and joints should not be subjected to stress f or
at least 15 hours.
Flush bonding of f ormed parts requires an even
application of Solid Surf acing adhesive on both the
cut-out and the edge of the bowl / sink. The bowl / sink
must be levelled as it f loats in the bed of adhesive and
then lef t without cramping while the adhesive hardens.
If f or any reason the bowl has to be lif ted again, it is
necessary to clean the bonding surf ace immediately
and re-apply the adhesive, otherwise visible air bubbles
may f orm on the surf aces of the bonded joint.
For all versions of Solid Surf acing under-mounted f ormed parts,
application of adhesive is necessary only on one side.
Solid Surf acing adhesives are intended only f or bonding
Solid Surf ace to Solid Surf ace. Other materials such as
laminates, wood, metal, etc. should be bonded to
Solid Surf acing using, PU or Epoxy types of adhesives.
Silicone adhesives should be used f or bonding sub -f rames.
9
Solid Surfacing adhesive chart.
10
Care and Maintenance
Precautions. Cleaning & restoration.
Solid Surf acing material will give you years of
Heat service and enjoyment with some simple care
Do NOT place high - temperature objects and precautions.
directly onto the Solid Surf acing material. Hot
cookware can damage the surf ace. The use To k eep clean and remove simple stains;
of a trivet or other insulating pads is Use a damp cloth and any household
recommended. detergents to maintain a f resh and clean look.
Cutting. To remove stubborn stains, hard water
Avoid direct cutting on the surf ace. Under deposits, cigarette burns and minor scratches
excessive or abusive usage conditions, the on matt-finish surfaces;
material will show the cut marks. The use of a Use an abrasive cleaner or an abrasive scrub
chopping / cutting board is recommended. sponge such as 3M Scotch-Brite brand green /
yellow kitchen scrub sponge or the equivalent
maroon industrial pad, 3M #7447.
Stains.
While Solid Surf acing is resistant to most
To remove deep stains and scratched;
common household chemicals, some strong
Use f ine sandpaper and f inish as mentioned
acid or alkaline cleaners can mar or
previously.
permanently discolour Solid Surf acing if
allowed to remain on the surf ace f or an
To restore polished surfaces;
extended period. Accidental spills or splatters
Special skills and equipment are required to
f rom harsh cleaning materials should be
restore polished f inishes, Consult your
wiped of f immediately and then rinsed with
f abricator or dealer f or assistance.
water. Potentially harmf ul compositions
include; toilet bowl cleaner, drain cleaner, rust
To restore severe damage;
removers, contact adhesive solvent, ceramic
Special skills and equipment are required to
hob cleaners,oven cleaners, paint or varnish
repair damaged sections. Consult your
removers, lacquer thinners, metal cleaners.
f abricator or dealer f or assistance.
11
Repairs 1 of 3
Although Solid Surf acing is a hard wearing
material, it is conceivable that f rom time to time
some ref urbishment / repairs will be necessary
to restore damage caused by misuse, accident
or vandalism.
The method and acceptability of such repairs
will depend on the nature of the damage and
the colour of the Solid Surf acing.
Any major repair or ref urbishment work should
only be carried out by an authorised Solid
Surf acing f abricator.
DAMAGE CAN TAKE A NUMBER OF FORMS;
Minor abrasions and Scuffing
Can be removed with a Scotch-Brite pad, No
7447, f ine abrasive paper or a abrasive
cleaner. Treat the whole worktop to ensure an
even f inish.
Deep Scratching and Knife cuts
Can be removed by sanding and ref inishing the
worktop to its original condition. (f inishing
techniques, page’s 6 and 7)
Damaged areas greater than 6mm.
Are best repaired by plugging with a piece of
the same material. Remove the damaged area
with the aid of a drill and plug set, ( f igs 1a,1b,
1c, ) This equipment can be obtained f rom the
f ollowing companies, Titman Tools or
Trend Cutters.
12
Repairs 2 of 3
Edge damage.
May be repaired by cutting and patching, using
the same material. (f ig 3)
NOTE; It is recommended that the customer
is given an off-cut of Solid Surfacing from
the same sheet in order to achieve a perfect
colour match in the event of a repair being
necessary at some time in the future.
Bruises.
Caused by heavy impact and visible as a white
mark. Repair as f or deep scratching or damage
as appropriate.
Cracks and Broken Joints (seams)
Bef ore repairing any cracks or broken joints the
cause MUST be ascertained and remedied.
For major damage, I.e. cracks or broken joints
that cannot be separated and re-bonded as a
new joint, a triangular f illet will need to be f itted.
Make a template as shown ( f ig 2 ) and clamp
onto the surf ace around the damaged area.
Machine out the section using a portable hand
held router.
Using the same template cut a triangular
section f rom an of f -cut of the same Solid
Surf acing sheet. Bond the triangular f illet into
position with Solid Surf acing adhesive and
reinf orce the underside, (f ig 3 ).
For further detailed information appertaining to
repairs, having a down stand edge
profile, contact the FSU dept.
13
Repairs 3 of 3
To repair a crack or broken joint / seam, ( f ig
1) f irst machine a groove down the entire
length of the crack. (f ig 2)
Cut a square section of matching Solid
Surf acing material, then machine mill smooth
two edges with a slight bevel, so it is a f it f or f it
to the groove. (f ig 3)
Clean all areas. Apply Solid Surf acing adhesive
into the groove and push the machined f illet /
section into place, apply pressure until
suf f icient adhesive is f orced out. (f ig 4)
Once the adhesive is f ully cured, machine rout
just f lush the surplus Solid Surf acing material
and sand down the section in the normal
manner. (f ig 4 )
All seamed joints, included those which have
just been repaired, MUST have a
reinf orcement plate to the underside.
(f ig 5)
14
Working with Solid Surfacing 1 of 17
Position of Seams near corner sinks
or drop-in appliance.
Measure / mark out f ull sheet of Solid Surf acing
f or sink or drop in appliance (i.e. hob) Do not
place seams within sink or appliance cut-out
area. Assemble top as illustrated
Cut out f ront of Counter / top. Cut ends of
corner sheet at 45º angles.
Keep seams 30mm or more away f rom inside
corners.
Minimum inside corner radius MUST be 6mm
or larger.
Keep seams 80mm or more away f rom drop-in
appliances or sinks.
Cut out a triangular section f or back corner
f rom exciting material. Simultaneously rout the
joint and bond into place.
15
Working with Solid Surfacing 2 of 17
Preparation of Seams in the
workshop.
The machining of two pieces of Solid Surf acing
to create a seam joint can be carried out in two
methods. What is important however, is the
quality of the machined edge.
The f irst method and by f ar the most reliable is
the “Mirror Cut” technique, which works by
simultaneously cutting both the adjoining edges
in one cut.
Leave a space of 9mm between the sheets and
secure with either G clamps or Screw cramps.
Clamp a metal or Compact straight edge to one
of the pieces and to the table. With a 12.7mm
double f lute, TCT, tungsten router cutter f ixed
into a 1.5HP router machine, Draw the
machine towards you ensuring contact with the
straight edge, cutting both pieces at once.
Maintain a slow steady pace without stopping,
af ter cutting check that the joint match perf ectly
and mark the mating position.
The alternative method is to machine each
edge independently using a standard
workbench and straight edge. Removing
1.5mm in total. Check the accuracy of the joint,
if the edges do not match, repeat this exercise
on one or both of these edges until correct.
Af ter machining, both cut edges will require
sanding with 120 grit abrasive paper and
cleaned using Isopropyl Alcohol, in preparation
f or bonding.
Abrade the top surf ace with 120 grit near the
seam, clean and adhere wooden blocks using
hot melt adhesive.
16
Working with Solid Surfacing 3 of 17
Fill the gap to about one third depth with Solid
Surf acing adhesive of the appropriate colour
Push the joint together and apply cramping
pressure. Excess adhesive will squeeze out; do
not remove excess.
Af ter adhesive cures ( about 45 minutes)
remove cramps and wood blocks or sash
clamps. To remove wood blocks, f lood blocks
with alcohol, wait a f ew minutes and then prise
of f with a wood chisel, Protect the Solid
Surf acing with a laminate of f -cut under the
chisel. Any residual hot melt adhesive can be
removed f rom the surf ace with a sharp chisel,
having rounded corners to avoid gouging.
Remove the adhesive bead using a router with
a ski base and a f lat bottom cutter set just
above the surf ace.
Sandpaper to remove remaining adhesive and
level out seam, using a stif f base random
orbital sander with 100 - 120 grit paper.
17
Working with Solid Surfacing 4 of 17
Turn the top over, exposing underside of seam
and level the joint with a belt sander equipped
with a 120 grit paper.
Bond a reinf orcement strip to the underside
with Solid Surf acing adhesive. The strip should
be 80 to 100mm wide and have a 45º chamf er
on each long side. Where there is a drop edge,
butt the reinf orcement strip against the drop
edge f or additional strength.
This step is recommended f or all countertops
and f ood service tops to increase the strength
and heat resistance.
18
Working with Solid Surfacing 5 of 17
Preparation of seams on site.
Carry out these steps as f or previous
workshop seams.
In the workshop prepare a reinf orcement strip
80 to 100mm wide with a 45º chamf er on each
side. Mill down one half of the strip 0.2 to
0.3mm on a router table to allow f or excess
adhesive. Af ter sanding and cleaning with
alcohol, bond the un-milled half of the strip to
the bottom edge of the countertop section.
Apply cramps and remove excess adhesive
f rom overhang with a sharp chisel bef ore the
adhesive has cured.
When on site, f irst position the countertop
section with the reinf orcing strip. Next position
the adjoining section and check f or f it, levelling
and shimming as necessary.
Sand the top surf ace near the seam line with
120 grit to provide a bonding area f or the hot
melt adhered wood blocks. Clean and adhere
the blocks.
Apply Solid Surf acing adhesive to the
reinf orcement strip and position the section,
leaving a 3mm gap.
Half f ill the gap with Solid Surf acing adhesive
of the appropriate colour.
Push the joint together and apply cramps.
19
Working with Solid Surfacing 7 of 17
High strength edge joints.
Turn top sections over and pull together with
melt glue blocks to permit dry cramping of pre
routed seam.
Assemble and adhere f irst drop edge layer with
ends near seam cut at 45º angle and
positioned about 30mm away f rom the top joint.
Remove excess adhesive squeeze out f rom
45º angle ends with a sharp chisel bef ore
adhesive cures. Hand f it a key made f rom the
same colour material, the key will be installed
later when the joint is made.Adhere second
drop edge layer with 45º angle ends, and f ix as
above method. Apply Solid Surf acing adhesive
and pull top seam together. Using a clean cloth
damped with alcohol quickly remove excess
adhesive f rom the underside where the f irst
drop edge key is to be positioned
20
Working with Solid Surfacing 7 of 17
Apply Solid Surf acing adhesive of the
appropriate colour to the f irst key, press into
place and cramp temporarily. Using a clean
cloth dampened with alcohol, quickly remove
excess adhesive f rom the underside where
next drop edge key is to be f itted.
Repeat the same process as above.
21
Working with Solid Surfacing 8 of 17
Basic edge assemblies.
Surf ace -to - surf ace.
Strongest joint.
Gives multiple prof ile possibilities.
Most versatile f or inside and outside
corners f abrication.
Requires least machining bef ore assembly.
Allows incorporation of other Solid
Surf acing colours.
Double edge - on - edge.
Gives multiple prof ile possibilities
Inside and outside corner f abrication is
more complicated than surf ace to surf ace
assembly.
Requires extra machining steps for tight
joints
Single edge to edge.
Recommended only f or overhanging edges
having minimal clearance.
Limited prof ile possibilities.
Least impact resistance.
Weakest inside corner strength.
Requires extra machining steps f or tight
joints.
22
Working with Solid Surfacing 9 of 17
Inside corners.
(surface to surface assembly)
Cut a rectangular corner block of sufficient size
to allow one end to overlap the seam by 30mm
or more. Remove the section as illustrated
using a router, jig-saw or band saw, (cut 3mm
or more away f rom the f inal trim line if using a
jig saw or band saw.
Sand all surf aces to be bonded with 100 - 120
grit sandpaper. Dry f it the corner piece and
edge strips. Sand all butting joints on a disc
sander to achieve a tight f it and cramp
temporarily into place.
Af ter all edges are f itted adhere hot melt glue
blocks in strategic locations, (removal of blocks
is easier if they are glued at an angle). Remove
pieces and clean with alcohol.
23
Working with Solid Surfacing 10 of 17
Apply Solid Surf acing adhesive to the corner
pieces. Use beads of Solid Surf acing adhesive
in crossing patterns at corners and at ends to
ensure suf f icient adhesive coverage. Assemble
within 2 minutes or less af ter applying the
adhesive.
Apply adhesive and quickly re-position each
piece, applying cramps every 100 - 150mm
bef ore the adhesive has geld.
Remove previously adhered wood blocks, and
dry f it the next edge layer. Adhere new hot melt
blocks, having notched out a section to allow
contact only with the new edge layer. Glue and
cramp as f or f irst layer.
24
Working with Solid Surfacing 11 of 17
Installing Hobs.
Using appropriate template and guide pin /
collet cut out opening with a twin f lute (TCT)
12mm cutter. A minimum 6mm radius f or all
internal corner cut-outs f or heat producing
units (i.e. hobs) NB, it would be advisable to
increase this radius when possible. The Solid
Surf acing perimeter apex edges of the cut-out
should have a 2mm radius and sand smooth.
NB, Make sure all seams are at least 80mm
away f rom hob opening.
Cut f our 100 x 100mm blocks of Solid
Surf acing and machine 45º bevel on all non
abutting edges.
Bond a block in each of the f our corners with
Solid Surf acing adhesive. Butt f ront corner
blocks into the drop edge, bond and cramp
until adhesive has cured. Cut out excess with a
ball bearing guide router cutter.
Apply two layers of heat ref lective aluminium
tape (e.g. Scotch aluminium f oil tape #425 or
#427) The tape is bent back and separated on
the inside of the cut-out to provide better heat
dissipation.
Insert hob into worktop. The hob f lange MUST
rest on the aluminium tape and the gap
between the hob f lange and cut-out edge
MUST BE AT LEAST 3mm ALL ROUND.
25
Working with Solid Surfacing 12 of 17
Curved up-stands.
Machine a 2 or 3mm deep rebate into the back
edge of the worktop and prepare the cove
insert and up-stand by routing and sanding.
The cove section should sit slightly higher than
the worktop surf ace. Clean all areas with
alcohol, apply Solid Surf acing adhesive and
insert machined cove into rebate and cramp to
the worktop.
When adhesive has cured, bond the up-stand
onto the cove section, making sure the up
stand is square to the worktop. Remove excess
adhesive bef ore it has cured. Finish by sanding
using a cove sander, or sand by hand using a
suitable radii block.
NOTE; As an alternative to using a shaped
cove section insert, a strip of Solid Surf acing
can be inserted and machined to shape using a
coving router machine af ter bonding the up
stand into position.
26
Working with Solid Surfacing 13 of 17
Installing formed parts.
( Sinks and Bowls)
Solid Surf acing f ormed parts (i.e. sinks &
bowls) can be integrated with inconspicuous
joints into the sheet material, or f ixed f rom
underneath.
All sink s & bowls should be inspected for
damage before fitting.
If you are not using a CNC machine, a
template matching the sink or bowl is needed
f or f itting. In addition you will require the
corresponding tooling for the installation. (i.e.
hand router 1.5HP, TCT router cutters).
Fitting under-mounted sinks &
bowls.
Turn the worktop over, determine the location
f or the sink / bowl and mark the centre lines
using a awl or pencil.
Centre the sink / bowl on the top using centre
lines marks. Mark the outer perimeter of the
sink onto the worktop.
Remove the sink and sand the bonding area of
worktop with 100-120 grit sand paper. Plunge
rout a 100mm Ø venting hole in the worktop
directly under the sink drain.Clean the bonding
areas with alcohol. Adhere hot melt wooden
blocks in the correct position.
Ensure sink f lange / rim is f lat by sanding on a
rubbing board covered with 120 grit paper,
clean the all areas with alcohol and allow to
dry.
27
Working with Solid Surfacing 14 of 17
Apply a bead of Solid Surf acing adhesive
(6mm or larger) of the appropriate colour to the
f lange. Do not spread the bead.
Invert the sink or bowl and press into place with
slight movement to transf er the adhesive. The
sink or bowl must be set in place within 2
minutes af ter applying adhesive.
Cramp the sink or bowl to the worktop with a
bar cramp or a long bolt through the sink waste
hole and the venting hole, using a wooden
block to distribute the cramping pressure.
Likewise cramping the perimeter of the sink
with adjustable deep-throat cramps and
wooden blocks.
Using the appropriate cutters, cut-out the sink
opening and shape the sink lip. Sand out
chatter marks and smooth lip with 120 grit, and
f iner sand papers as required.
For a bull-nose prof ile on vanity bowls use a
larger bearing parallel cutter, then bull - nose
prof ile cutter.
Precaution; move router out and away from the
bowl lip and allow the cutter to stop before
removing from the work top to avoid damage to
the profile. Sand finish to blend with the
work top.
For additional support to the sink / bowl,
mechanical f ixings to the underside is
recommended.
28
Working with Solid Surfacing 15 of 17
Fitting flush and recess sinks &
bowls.
Position Solid Surf acing worktop, face side up
on a well supported sturdy f rame. Draw / mark
f or the sink location, matching the axis lines on
the Solid Surf acing top to those on the template
and cramp the template, (f or asymmetric
f ormed parts ensure that the template is the
right way round).
Use a hand router with a 30mm guide ring and
9mm TCT straight cutter rout out the opening
supporting the cut-out as it separates to avoid
damage to the sheet.
Use a router with 300mm guide ring and 15º
bevel cutter to guide against the template and
trim the sheet. The bevel cutter should be
initially set 12mm deep into the sheet material.
Check the f it with the sink. Do not remove the
template at this stage. If the sink sits high, set
the cutter lower and trim the edge again.
For f lush f itting, the sink should f it exactly
within the opening, f lush to 0.5mm higher than
the top of the sheet. When the desired f it has
been achieved, remove the template, sand the
bevelled edge of the sink and sheet with 120
grit paper. Clean all areas with alcohol.
For recess f itting, the sink should f it exactly into
opening, 2-3mm lower than the worktop
surf ace. When the desired f it has been
achieved, remove the template and machine a
2mm radius around the perimeter of the
opening. Sand bevel edge of sink and top,
clean all areas with alcohol. Place top on well
supported f lat frame, apply tape under to bevel
of cut-out, apply tape to sink f lange. Turn sink
upside down on f lat working area.
29
Working with Solid Surfacing 16 of 17
Apply Solid Surf acing adhesive, (appropriate
colour matching the sink) to the upper edge of
the worktop cut-out and to the outside of the
sink f lange / rim.
Lower the sink into place. Remove the masking
tape f rom the sink f lange / rim. Check f or
levelling of the sink and alignment to the
worktop.
Remove excess adhesive bef ore it cures. For
f lush f itting, af ter the adhesive has cured, sand
the f lange / rim suing 100-120 grit paper. Finish
in accordance with the section on f inishing.
Holes for taps.
Holes f or tapes can be made using a router
with a straight TCT cutter and template, or by
the use of hole-saw cutter. It is essential that
the hole edges have a small radius and are
sanded smooth to prevent stress cracking.
Drainage channels and Hot bars.
A series of radius grooves machined into the
worktop surf ace to a maximum depth of 5mm
will provide drainage channels or recesses f or
insertion of stainless steel bars. The latter
serving as a raised area f or standing hot
utensils.
30
Food Service Countertops 1 of 3
Support structures. Another technique is to cover the expansion joint
Fixtures must be even and level with no high or (3mm) with a metal “T” section bonded in place
low spots which can induce cracking. with silicone. NOTE; The maximu m operating
Fasten abutting cabinets together and securely temperature of the Solid Surfacing, in the cut-out
anchor to the wall. If f ree standing attach to area, should NOT exceed 65ºC. If higher
f loor. Construct support frame f rom MDF, temperatures are experienced, cracking can occur
Plywood or tubular steel. and other design alternatives are required.
Tubular steel should be welded in desired grid
conf iguration. When using tubular steel grind
down all welds and high spots.
DO NOT USE SOLID SUBSTRATE FOR
SUPPORT, ( e.g. MDF, PLYWOOD OR
PARTICLE BOARD SHEETS)
When using 12mm thick Solid Surf acing
provide support every 300mm. Cantilever /
over hang greater than 150mm require
structural support. Provide perimeter support
within 80mm of all cut-outs. Large tops and
those that support equipment, (i.e. drink
dispensers, ref rigerated units etc) require the
use of tubular steel f raming supports. The
under ladder sub-f rame must be positioned
back 3mm f rom the drop f ront edge to avoid
binding due to f rame movement. Adhere sub
f rame with dabs of silicone applied every 100 -
150mm, DO NOT USE A CONTINUOUS BEAD.
Hot / cold food service.
Food service tops containing both hot and cold
sections must be physically isolated f rom each
other. One method is to space the sections
about 3mm apart and caulk with a suitable
silicone sealant. A slight chamf er on the top
side of abutting sections will help keep the
silicone f ill sof ter below the surf ace f or better
perf ormance.
31
Food Service Counters 2 of 3
Installing steam heated food wells.
Cut all apertures with router and template.
Internal corners must have a minimum of 6mm
radius, clearance between steam unit and cut
out edge should be 3mm all round. Do not
allow seams to run into cut-out area.
Reinf orce all f our corners with Solid Surf acing
blocks, 120 x120mm having two chamf ered
opposite sides, bond blocks onto the underside
of corners. Rout excess away with a ball
bearing straight TCT cutter, then round over all
edges to a 2mm radius and sand. For circular
cut-outs, a continuous ring of Solid Surf acing
must be bonded to the underside.
Apply two layers of heat ref lective tape, ( i.e.
Scotch aluminium f oil tape #425 or #427) as
illustrated. The f lange of the heat producing
unit must contact the two layers of aluminium
tape f or maximum dissipation.
For even greater dissipation of heat the steam
heated f ood well can be installed inside a
stainless steel collar.
Apply aluminium tape to cut-out having
reinf orced the corners.
32
Food Service Countertops 1 of 3
Heat ventilation techniques.
Install a louvered vent at the bottom of one side
and install a second louvered vent at the top of
the opposite side, to create convection cooling.
For f orced ventilation install a f an near the
bottom of the cabinet to pull cool air into the
unit and provide vents along the upper section.
Sneeze-guard mounting.
Supports f or sneeze-guards must be
mechanically f astened to the cabinets or f loor.
All holes through the Solid Surf acing tops must
be 3-6mm oversize to accommodate expansion
and contraction. NEVER mechanically f asten
the sneeze-guard directly into the Solid
Surf acing sheets.
33
Support Structure for Solid Surfacing
Generally speaking, all Solid Surf acing sheet
tops will need additional support in the f orm of
a sub-f rame to add strength and provide a
means of mixing.
WITH THE EXCEPTION OF SMALL ITEMS SUCH
AS BAR TABLE-TOPS, SOLID SUPPORT IN THE
FORM OF SHEETS OF WOOD-BASED
MATERIALS, SUCH AS PARTICLE BOARD OF
MDF, IS NOT RECOMMENDED.
Sub-f rames may be f abricated f rom Particle
board, plywood or MDF, the thickness
depending on the depth of the down drop f ront
edge detail. DO NOT USE SOLID TIMBER.
For wet applications use a moisture resistant
material (MR)
Sub-f rames should be rigid, self supporting
ladder-f rame construction f rom 75-100mm
wide sections with cross members at 300mm
centres and should not be individual parts
bonded to the Solid Surf acing sheet. Cross
members should be positioned to coincide with
joints and the edges of cut-outs and where any
known f ixings are required.The prepared sub
f rame should be bonded to the underside of the
Solid Surf acing sheet with dabs of silicone
adhesives at 100-150mm centres. This should
be done during manuf acture and not on site.
Use 2-3mm spacers between the sub-f rame
and the Solid Surf acing to maintain an even
bond thickness. A 2-3mm space should also be
provided between the edge of the sub -f rame
and the down stand and silicone injected at
200-300mm centres.
34
Installation 1 of 3
General. In order to accommodate the small amount of
Look f or tops, or portions of tops, that are to be thermal movement that may take place, a 3mm
f itted between and walls, mullions, etc. These gap should be lef t all around the top, f illed with
must be undersized suf f iciently to avoid binding silicone. Do not jam the worktop between walls
or stresses caused by thermally induced or up against any hot appliance. Any wedging
movement. For normal conditions, where the used to close joints should be removed as
temperature isn’t expected to increase more soon as the adhesive has cured, in order to
then 10ºC above the ambient, the top should maintain the thermal expansion gap.
be undersized about 3mm per 303cm of length. Fixing should only be made into the sub -f rame
Even greater temperature increases can be supplied with the top and should allow f or
expected in glassed areas which have dimensional movement.
southern exposure. Under these conditions, In situ jointing and f inishing procedures are
temperatures can rise to (18º - 21ºC) above the exactly the same as those in the workshop but,
ambient. Tops positioned between end walls, because site conditions are rarely ideal, on-site
under this condition, must be undersize even work should be kept to a minimum.
more, e.g. 5mm - 6mm per 304cm of length. Any cut-outs f or hobs, grills etc, that are made
Commercial or residential countertops on site must be cut with a router and template.
sections, in excess of 730cm lineal M, will Ideally they should be pre-prepared and
require a f lexible joint to accommodate the partially machined in the workshop, with all
potential dimensional movement. In f ood necessary reinf orcing in place, leaving the
service applications this can of ten be minimum amount of work to be done.
co-ordinated with the need of a f lexible joint All internal corners must have a smooth radius
between hot and cold sections. of at least 6mm. When used above appliances
that generate heat, (i.e. dishwashers), the
Kitchen worktops. underside of the Solid Surf acing should be
protected by a sheet of thin insulating material
Solid Surf acing must be installed in a stress
to prevent localised heat build up. This should
f ree state,. Bef ore installing any Solid Surf acing
be attached to the sub-f rame to create an air
top always make sure that it has been
space. Ventilation should be provided in the
conditioned to the end environment, by storing
back of appliance housing and cupboards to
it f or 24 hours in the area where it is to be
allow hot air to escape.
f itted. Prepare the site by ensuring that all
If tiled back splashes are installed they must
supporting elements are secure, level and
not rest upon the Solid Surf acing top. Leave a
straight. Supports should be provided at
3mm gap and f ill with silicone. Do not allow any
maximum intervals of 600mm and also along
grout or rendering to block the perimeter
the back wall.
expansion gap.
35
Installation 2 of 3
Window sills. Site preparation.
Line and level the sill sub-base with a moisture Solid Surf acing should not be bonded direct to
resistance sheet material, such as MR quality masonry, blockwork, concrete, rendered or
MDF or WBP plywood. The edge detail of the plastered walls. Sound, dry walls should either
sill should be designed to cover and conceal be grounded out with timber battens to f orm a
this lining. grid (400mm maximum centres) to coincide
with any joints in the Solid Surf acing, or
Cut and scribe the sill to the required shape covered with 12mm minimum sheet material
and size,.All internal corners must have a such as Plywood, MDF. For wet areas
smooth radius of at least 6mm. Because sun applications, as timber battens should be
through glass can cause very high treated against rot and board material should
temperatures on sills, the size of the expansion be moisture resistant. Wood-based products
gap at both ends and around projections used f or ground s or lining should be 20mm up
should be calculated f rom the f ollowing f rom the bottom of the Solid Surf acing to
expansion rate, 0.040 mm/M/ºC. prevent water soaking up behind. Solid
Surf acing may be applied direct to tiles
Bond the prepared sill into position with silicone providing they are sound clean and watertight.
sealant using 3mm spacers to maintain an Remove any loose tiles and f ill the spaces with
even bond thickness. Use weights to hold the Solid Surf acing off-cuts or MR sheet material,
sill in position until the silicone has cured and using panel adhesive.
seal all gaps.
Cutting & fitting
Wall cladding. As much cutting as possible should be carried
Solid Surf acing makes an excellent material f or out in the workshop and the Solid Surf acing
internal wall cladding in a wide range of items delivered to site as cut-to-size panels.
applications, such as bathrooms, showers, Fabrication of panels to accommodate
kitchen splash backs, washroom, hospital plumbing, electrical services, vents grilles and
clean rooms, reception areas, etc. The basic other cut-outs should be done prior to
f abrication techniques are the same as f or all installation. Holes f or pipes should have a
other Solid Surf acing applications, together clearance of at least 3mm all round. All internal
with the f ollowing special recommendations. corners should have 6mm radius. Panels must
not be jammed between walls or f ixtures,
always leave 3mm space f or expansion.
36
Installation 3 of 3
Any screw or bolt f ixing passing through the Solid Surf acing may also be bonded to strip
Solid Surf acing material into a sub-structure grounds using a continuous bead of adhesive.
should have a metal bush to accommodate Use shims f or positioning and levelling and
compression. Do not bolt / screw up tight onto temporary braces to support the panels until
the Solid Surf acing . A clearance hole of at the adhesive has cured.
least 1.5 x Ø of the f ixing should be allowed f or Finally, seal all joints, corners and around
expansion. sanitary ware with silicone sealant to ensure a
water resistant, hygienic and visually
acceptable installation.
Joint treatments.
For small areas such as splash backs or
shower walls, butt joints may be bonded with
Solid Surf acing adhesive and f inished in the
normal manner. Panels may be tongued and
grooved in order to bring the f ace sides f lush.
Do not rigidly bond internal / external corners.
Installation. On long runs of panelling, expansion gaps
Solid Surf acing material should be bonded into should be provided at every other joint, or
position with a f lexible adhesive that will 1800mm maximum. These should be 3mm
accommodate thermal movement wide and f illed with silicone sealant in an
(0.040mm/M/ºC), suitable adhesives including appropriate colour. On large areas where
(neoprene's) or 2-part acrylic adhesives. Do expansion and accurate alignment of the
not use water-based adhesives because of the panels edges can be more of a problem,
risk of trapping water vapour behind the Solid f eature joints may be pref erred. These can be
Surf acing, which could result in deterioration treated in a Varity of ways, possibly with the
Solid Surf acing may be bonded to solid board introduction of another colour of Solid
linings or sound tiles by running a 6mm bead of Surf acing or another material, such as Formica
adhesive around the perimeter of the panel, “Colorcore”, timber etc, etc, to f orm a f eature,
(about 25mm f rom the edge), and horizontal Note; Metallics is not recommended for wet
beads across the panel at about 150mm areas.
centres. Holes and cut-outs should have a
bead of adhesive around the perimeter.
37
Thermo-forming Solid Surfacing 1 of 3
Although strictly speaking Solid surf acing is not Radiant heat.
a thermof ormable product, a degree of bending High output heaters similar to those f or
is possible within certain limits. The f ollowing postf orming, For best results they should be
technical inf ormation is of f ered as a guide to arranged in a double bank with the material to
those that wish to pursue the f orming of Solid be f ormed in between. Other heat sources may
Surf acing. The inf ormation is based on work be used but the availability and ef f iciency of
carried out in the Fabrication Support Unit - equipment will govern the size of component
Formica Ltd. But because of the physical that can be f ormed.
nature of the product, no guarantee of success Contact heat.
is of f ered or implied. Fabricators are advised to
Heater bars used f or edge bonding can be
make in house trials bef ore proceeding.
used f or narrow strips up to 60mm wide by
Heating. simply sandwiching the Solid Surf acing
To achieve a degree of thermof orming with between two heater. Contact heating tends to
Solid Surf acing it is necessary to heat the case harden the surf ace if used f or prolonged
product to 120ºC - 150ºC throughout the entire periods and may promote surf ace crazing
thickness, higher temperatures lead to during the bending process. This method to be
brittleness. To achieve this in the shortest used with caution.
possible time and to prevent degradation of the
Hot air (Ovens)
product, it should be heated f rom both sides.
Industrial ovens are suitable f or larger pieces
The time taken to attain the required
but the heating up time is longer. Samples to
temperature will depend on the method / type
be heated should be either stood on edge or
of heating used and the temperature of the
supported on mesh shelves to prevent pre
Solid Surf acing at the time, 10-25 minutes
def ormation and allow f ree air circulation to
average. The heating up time can be
both sides simultaneously.
ascertained by inserting a probe f rom a digital
Small DIY ovens can be constructed f rom large
thermometer into a pilot hole bored in the
bore (100 - 150mm Ø) metal tubes, with hot air
centre of the edge to about 50mm deep. This
guns placed at both ends. The tube should be
procedure should not be used on actual
insulated on the outside to prevent heat loss
components as it will create a weak spot which
and accidental injury. This device is suitable f or
may generate cracking.
long narrow strips, such as worktop edges,
Three basic methods of heating can be used.
which must be supported along their entire
The choice will depend on the equipment
length.
available, the size of component to be f ormed
and required radius.
38
Thermo-forming Solid Surfacing 2 of 3
Preparation. The recovery f actor must be allowed f or when
The sample to be f ormed must have perf ectly making the f orming jig, example; to obtain an
clean, smooth machined edges, f ree f rom any external radius of 600mm with 12mm Solid
small chips or cracks that might generate a Surf acing the f ormer must have a radius of ;
f ailure. As a f urther precaution the outside 0.95 x ( 600 - 12mm ) = 558 radius, and f or
edge of the bend, those in tension, should have 6mm Solid surf acing it would be, 0.97 x (600 -
a 2mm radii. 6mm) = 570 radius.
Caref ul consideration must also be given to the
Forming.
thermal expansion coef f icient of Solid
Once the Solid Surf acing material has reached
Surf acing when making the jigs and f ormers. A
the required temperature it should be removed
1 metre length of Solid Surf acing will expand
f rom the heat source, using protective gloves,
4.5mm when heated to f orming temperature
and placed on the f ormer that will impart the
assuming a starting temperature of 20ºC. Any
desired shape. This may be a purpose made
contacting surf aces must be smooth and as
jig or as in the case of edge strips, it can be
f riction f ree as possible. This is to allow the
bent around the actual component. The time
Solid Surf acing to f reely contract during
lapse between removing f rom the heat source
cooling; if it is pinched / restrained too tightly
and f orming should be as brief as possible.
f racturing may occur.
Jigs need not be of the male and f emale type,
all that is required is a male f ormer over which
the Solid Surf acing can be bent with the
f inished surf ace either on the outside or inside
of the curve. The Solid Surf acing is best drawn
around the f ormer with the aid of a “tension
skin” (f ig 1) on the outside of the curve to
prevent bursting / braking. The “tension skin”
may be of any non extensible material, such as
thin sheet steel or aluminium. Male and f emale
moulds may also be used f or more complex
shapes. The f ormed Solid Surf acing material
must remain in the f ormer/ jig until it has cooled
in natural condition, (approximately 2 to 3
hours to prevent recovery. However it should
be noted that even when completely cold,
some recovery is inevitable - typically 5% f or
12mm and 3% f or 6mm.
39
Thermo-forming Solid Surfacing 3 of 3
Restrictions.
The minimum recommended radius f or Solid
Surf acing is 350mm f or 12mm product and
200mm f or 6mm. Small radii may be possible
with narrow strips, but below 250mm radius the
process becomes progressively less
predictable.
Some colour shif t may be evident on dark
colours, depending on the size of radius. The
tighter the radii the more pronounced the
colour change will be.
Because of the build up of tension towards the
edges, their is a tendency f or f ormed
components to have a degree of concavity at
90º to the curve, on the tension side of the
bend. This can be overcome by allowing 15
20mm on both edges f or post trimming.
This will also remove any small edge cracks
that may occur. The granular make up of the
speckled f inishes makes them more prone to
cracking during f orming and even without a
complete f racture some crazing of the tension
side of the bend may be evident, particularly on
tight bends.
40
Physical Properties.
Fire performance.
Solid Surf acing sheets material has been tested to BS 476; parts 6 and 7, and achieves a class 0
rating in accordance with UK building regulations.
Surf ace spread of f lame, BS476 part 7 Class 1
Fire propagation. BS476 part 6 1 = 7.0, !1 = 0
Epiradiateu. NF P 92-501 M2
Food Contact.
Solid Surf acing sheet material has been tested in accordance with the Royal Institute of Health &
Hygiene (reg. no, 7962) and American NSF requirements which is certif ied as suitable f or f ood
contact applications.
41
Stain resistance. 1 of 2
Group 1.
The f ollowing chemicals can be lef t in contact with Solid Surf acing f or prolonged periods (tested for a
minimum of 16 hours) with no ef f ect other than a possible slight surf ace mark which can be removed
with detergent solution and a scouring pad.
42
Stain resistance 2 of 2
Table 2. EN 438-2 groups 3 and 4 test methods.
Substance Contact time Rating*
Boric acid 10 minutes 5
Hydrochloric acid (3%) 10 minutes 5
Hydrogen peroxide (30%) 10 minutes 5
Iodine 10 minutes 5
Sanitary-ware cleaner 10 minutes 5
Shoe polish 10 minutes 5
Sodium hydroxide (25%) 10 minutes 5
Acetic acid (5%) 10 minutes 5
Citric acid (10%) 10 minutes 5
*Key to rating scale.
Rating 5 No visible change
Rating 4 Slight change in gloss and / or colour
Rating 3 Moderrate change in gloss and / or colour
Rating 2 Significeant change in gloss and / or colour
Rating 1 Surfcae damage
Note; Even the most stubborn stains can be removed by abrasive cleaning
43
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