THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND BRITISH POLITICS

							 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND BRITISH POLITICS


   I.       The industrial Revolution and the emergence of new economic classes
         Industrial revolution: social and politic troubles provoked by the economic evolution.
         Between 1830 and 1832, there was a progressive end of English Ancien Régime.

            A. Some economic characteristics of the Industrial Revolution

                         transition from a rural England with important trade and few industry
                          (1760) ton an industrial England (1850)
                         In the 18th century, there is a small scale industry, close to
                          agriculture: it’s the domestic system or cottage system. It’s a part-
                          time industry, at home with farmers and based on textile. Association
                          between agriculture and industry disappears little by little. First,
                          industry is located in mountainous areas (for the water power) in the
                          North (the Penines). After steam engine invention, it’s located near
                          coal fields in North but also around ports for raw materials imports.
                          From 1820, old system disappears quickly. There’s a geographic and
                          economic break between the North and the South.
                         Concentration of means of production since 1820. large factories
                          more and more numerous. Domestic system disappears between 1820
                          and 1840. There’s a loss of jobs and a social agitation. 1st part of 19th
                          century is characterized by demographic explosion in industrial towns
                          => over crow and lack of public health => creation of slums.

            B. Some social consequences

   Proletariat is an new socio-economic group who depends on its wages, the proletarian is a
   city dweller. Urban life is a sort of jail hated by workers.
Until 1830, factory is constituted by workshops with many bosses. There creation of an
advanced middle class. Shopkeepers live thanks to industrial workers, if the wages are low,
workers are not buying. Alliance between shopkeepers and small industrialists.

   II.      The distribution of power in early 19th century Britain

            A. The “Ancien Régime”

                             1. A landed elite holding the key levers of power
Political power is in the hands of the big landowners. In England, it’s a landed aristocracy.
Titled aristocracy sits in the House of Lords (peers of the Realm)
                             2. a political order resting on hierarchy and deference
Big families established for centuries are accepted by population as superior. English society
is a deferential society. Aristocracy manipulated voters. It’s easy to bribe them.
                             3. The electoral system
2 constituencies: counties: 1 Member of Parliament (MP) for each county and boroughs: 1
MP for each independent borough
There are many voters in countryside because the freeholders of land worth 40 shillings or £2
a year had franchise. There were a few voters in boroughs and they were bribed. In pocket
boroughs, aristocracy owns most of houses, in treasury boroughs, voters were bribed with
money of Treasure, in rotten boroughs, there are a few inhabitants but 2 MPs. The electoral
map was established at the 17th century, there are anomalies.
                           4. A legitimate for all that?
The essential thing was the representation of “interests”, not of persons. 80% of MPs
represent land interests. 20% are mostly trade and financial interests. Every Englishman could
send a petition to the Parliament and obligation of debating it. The system was used until
1850, it created safety valves.

           B. Whigs and Tories

                            1. The Tories
It’s the more conservative part of aristocracy. They want to maintain political powers for
crown. In England, there is a set of institutions which rest on 3 pillars: throne, land and altar
for the Tories. They are afraid of industrialists. Most of them were not Anglicans and
belonged to disserting sects.
                            2. The Whigs
They are opposed to the Tories since the 17th century. For them, Parliament powers have to be
increased. Whigs embodied the more liberal part of aristocracy. This party had the favor of
the industrialists. This party had the favor of the industrialists. Around 1815, political system
have to widen parliamentary representation of middle classes but have to stay based on
private property, it’s the base of citizenship.
In 1815, Whigs wanted to get back at power but electoral system was favoring the Tories.
Reform Act of 1832 will help Whigs to apply their ideas and theories.

   III.    The oligarchy under fire: the Reform Bill of 1832

           A. The emergence and containment of popular radicalism

                            1. “Radicalism” defined. Middle class versus working class
                                radicalism
A radical is every person wanting great reforms of society, which can lead to a revolution of
the established order. There are different kinds of radicalism: middle-class radicalism and
working-class radicalism.
                            2. Popular radicalism before 1815: limited and resistible
The program of the parliamentary reform is going to be the object of a violent agitation
orchestrated by radicals between 1816 and 1820. They want manhood suffrage, annual
Parliament and secret ballot. Radical reformers are opposed to moderate reformers who want
household suffrage.
                            3. Working class unrest between 1815 and 1820
Twenty years of war => low wages, lack of food, continental blockade. Between 1816 and
1819, economic recession is worsening life condition of working-class. Economic discontent
lead to a political discontent. The principal reason is the burden of taxation. Workers have to
be represented at Parliament because an old principle says : no taxation without
representation. People had the impression that aristocracy forgot moral principles: hierarchy
and paternalism. In economic liberalism, labor market is regulated by law of supply and
demand. Parliament has to interfere for a minimal wage. Parliament has dismantled an old
social legislation from the 16th century which protected workers from boss. Economic
discontent become political. After 1815, radical movements organized in the country
manifestations. Agitation will last 3 years. Aristocracy state stay in power for 2 reasons:
radicalism afraid people and British government knows how to resolve crises and use a
judicious repression.

           B. The rise of middle class discontent
                          1. the industrial middle-class: from economic grouping to political
                              class. The need for an independent representation in the
                              Commons
Industrial middle-class doesn’t accept land aristocracy domination. There are 3 phases
between 1780 and 1815:
                     take of consciousness of mutual economic interests
                     economic interests not the same as other groups => class
                        consciousness
                     interests often opposed to other economic groups, need of a share of
                        political power.

                           2. James Mill and David Ricardo: the aristocrat as parasite, the
                              bourgeois as natural leader
Aristocrats are not producers, they are land renters. Bourgeois are producers of wealth, they
should be the leaders. English government stay close to an economic doctrine existing since
the 17th century: mercantilism. The corn law vote prove that agriculture interests dominate
others economic interests. The goal of mercantilism is the development national production
protecting it from foreign competition.

           C. The Whigs, the middle classes and electoral reform

                            1. The implosion of the Tory party
Tory party was in power this time and the prime Minister was the Duke of Wellington. In
1828, two parliamentary seats belonging to rotten boroughs are free and maybe two
industrious towns are going to take them. But government is opposed to that because of the
Conservative part of party. The liberal part of the party is discontent. In 1829, government
wants to give catholic emancipation because of an unstable situation in Ireland but the ultra
Tories are discontent too.
On November 1830, Wellington government is beaten in a vote and Wellington resigned. The
new Prime minister is the leader of the Whigs: Lord Grey. It’s possible for the Whigs to
establish an electoral reform which permit to give vote right to a part of middle-class. For the
radicalism, it’s a weakening of aristocratic power. Creation of political union: some are
strictly working-class and revolutionary, others are middle-class and working-class, more
moderate.

                          2. Consolidating the Constitution: the Whig’s aim
The Whigs thought about a moderate reform. For them, no right of vote for the working-class.
Agitation between 1830-1832 will lead to the 1st Reform Act because of a fear of revolution.
There’s an introduction of a Bill by Lord John Russel in the House of Commons on March
1831. The aim is to defuse revolutionary thoughts of middle-classes. For Whigs, basis of
political power is property. For Tories, it’s better to keep status quo of before 1832. On July
1832, Reform act is definitely voted but most of Tories abstained.
                            3. The terms of the 1832 Reform Bill
There’s a redistribution of seats in favor of the new industrial towns (for a half) and a
reinforcement of landing interests with the other half for the counties. Influence of landed
interests is preserved in the countryside. The property principle in politics retained: generally
speaking, no representation for factory workers and farm laborers. The franchise is granted to
a new category of voters: £10 householders, tenant farmers, 40 shillings freeholders, £50
tenants will.

                            4. Conclusion: a prophylactic bill
The Reform is a stratagem of the landed aristocracy to preserve their predominance in the
process of law making. English electorate who was tiny is increased of 50% after the Reform.
There are few workers among voters because the threshold isn’t reached. Middle-class wanted
more political importance for the Whigs. They drafted the reform Bill knowing what middle-
class wanted. But it’s also, a 1st unwitting step towards a more democratic and more
parliamentary system of government. It’s the beginning of the end for the agrarian order.
This Reform Act recognize the importance of the franchise for people. Economic interests are
not only represented but also the people. Workers are counted out of the system but the more
the standard of living will increase, the more workers will vote.
During the 20 years after, part of the Reform Act was to avoid a clash between the landing
aristocracy and the industrious middle-class. There’s a financial, economic, psychological
rallying of aristocracy to a middle-class outlook.