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Acknowledgements
This study was fully financed and supported by the Province of North Holland,
Netherlands. The Department of Community Health (DCH) Staff Members (Polokwane/
Mankweng Hospital Complex) played a very significant role in the completion of this
project. They supported me through oral presentations and critically correcting the
document. I would therefore like to thank DCH staff members for always been there
when things were falling apart. I have so much to say about you, but it is not possible for
me to write everything since the space is limited to this page. What I can say is this “This
report is yours”.
I would like to thank my supervisors because without their wise thinking, this report could
not have succeeded through external examiners. I give my thanks to:
• Professor Y.M. Dambisya for the thorough discussions, support and depriving
himself of his weekend time in order for me to finish this report. He was always
willing to allocate time for me even after working long nights at the hospital. Prof
Dambisya, I was fortunate to have a supervisor like you and I hope you continue
with an excellent work.
• Prof. F.R.S. Maluleke for the thorough discussions, and for always encouraging
me under difficult situations of writing this report.
• Dr. M.B.L. Mpolokeng for the training he has provided ever since we started with
this program. I would also like to thank him for the wise ideas during the difficult
times when I was struggling with a research title.
Lastly, I would like to thank everyone who regards herself/himself as my friend, because
you were always there to listen to me when the pressure was building up. Thank you
very much guys.
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Dedications
Firstly, I would like to take this opportunity to thank my mom, Mathabatha, for looking
after my daughter well, especially during weekends when I was supposed to work on
this report. “Mom, you are the best”.
Secondly, many thanks to my five brothers, my sister and sisters in law. You guys
have contributed to the completion of this report because you supported me in so many
ways.
Thirdly, I would like to thank my fiancé, Kgopotso, for always understanding the ups
and downs of writing a research report. I also thank him for not complaining about me
not spending enough time with our family. I also give thanks to my in-laws, Rra and
Amai (Mabitsela) for raising Kgopotso to be the good and understanding husband he is
today. Throughout all these ups and downs, there was Mankoko, who was always
willing to look after Ledile for many nights when I was writing this report.
This research is dedicated to my daughter, Ledile, who did not enjoy her time as a
toddler because her mom was always busy with the report. Ledile, you are my angel and
one day you will go through this report and understand why mommy was never around
to kiss and hug you.
Lastly, I would like to dedicate this report to my nephews and nieces. Every time I
wrote this report, your smiling faces popped up to relieve me from the stress.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………….……………………...i
Dedications ................................................................................................................. .…..ii
List of Tables .............................................................................................................. …..vi
List of Pictures ............................................................................................................ …..vi
Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………………....vii
List of Definitions……………………………………………………………………………….viii
Map 1 : Limpopo Province showing the Situation of the Three Villages ................... ......xi
Map 2 : Overview of the Three Villages……………. .................................................. .....xii
Abstract…………………………………………………………….…………………………...xiii
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Quality of Water.…………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.2. Chemical Contamination ..................................................................................... … 3
1.3. Microbial Contamination ..................................................................................... … 5
1.4. Background of the Study .................................................................................... … 6
1.4.1. Matlou Village .................................................................................... …. 6
1.4.2. Sekuruwe Village .................................................................................... …. 9
1.4.3. Taolome Village .................................................................................... ….. 9
Chapter 2
2.1. Literature Review…………………………………….……………………………………12
2.2. Motivation of the Study ....................................................................................... ….14
2.3. Problem Statement ............................................................................................. ….14
2.4. Aims of the Study ............................................................................................... ….15
2.5. Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................... ….15
2.6. Specific Objectives of the Study…………………………………………… ............ ….15
Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. …..16
3.1. Study Method and Design………….…………………………………………………….16
3.2. Study Area and Water Sources Sampling………………..….……..…….……………16
3.3. Water Sample Collection…………………………………………….. .................... …..17
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3.3.1. Matlou Village .................................................................................... …..18
3.3.2. Sekuruwe Village .................................................................................... ..…18
3.3.3. Taolome Village…………………………………………………………………………18
3.4. Water Sample Analysis………………………………………… ............................ …..19
3.4.1. Chemical Water Analysis……………. ............................................................. …..19
3.4.2. Microbial Water Analysis……………………… ................................................ …..21
3.4.3. Determination of Point of Contamination…… ................................................. …..22
3.4.4. Assessment of Households’ Method of Storage and Handling ...................... …..22
3.5. Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………………...22
3.6. Ethical Consideration……………………………………………… ........................ …..23
Chapter 4: RESULTS
Summary of Water Points…………………………………………………………………..24
4.1. Laboratory Results .......................................................................................... …..25
Matlou Borehole……………………………………………….. .................................. …..26
Sekuruwe and Taolome Reserviors………………. ................................................ …..26
Sekuruwe and Taolome Taps…………. ................................................................. …..26
All villages storage tanks……………………........................................................... …..27
4.2. Questionnaire Results
4.2.1. Water Supply
Matlou Village ………………….. ............................................................................ …..28
Sekuruwe Village……………………………………………… .................................. …..28
Taolome Village………………………………………………….. .............................. …..29
4.2.2. Water Storage Practices
Matlou Village ........................................................................................................ …..29
Sekuruwe Village…………………………… ........................................................... …..30
Taolome Village………………………………….. .................................................... …..30
4.2.3. Water Handling Practices
Matlou Village ........................................................................................................ …..32
Sekuruwe Village ………………………….. ............................................................ …..33
Taolome Village……………………………….. ........................................................ …..33
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Chapter 5: DISCUSSION ......................................................................................... …..35
5.1. Matlou Village .................................................................................................... …..35
5.2. Sekuruwe Village ............................................................................................... …..37
5.3. Taolome Village ................................................................................................. …..38
General Discussion………………………………………………………………………........39
Chapter 6 : CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS
6.1. Conclusion .......................................................................................................... …..40
6.2. Recommendations ............................................................................................. …..40
Limitations……………………………………………………………………………………….41
References……………………………………………………………………………………...42
Appendices
Appendix 1 (Questionnaires) ..................................................................................... …..46
Appendix 2 (Laboratory Methods and Principles) ..................................................... …..49
Appendix 3 (Questionnaire Raw results from Epi Info) ............................................. …..56
University of Limpopo Ethics Approval Letter
Data Recording Sheet
v
List of Tables
Table1: Summary of water points in three villages……………………………….……24
Table 2: Water quality laboratory results from Matlou borehole..…………………… 25
Table 3: Water Laboratory Results from Sekuruwe and Taolome Reservoirs… 25
Table 4: Water Laboratory Results from Sekuruwe and Taolome Taps…………. 26
Table 5: Water laboratory results from household’s storage tanks in all villages..... 27
Table 6: Water storage practices in Matlou, Sekuruwe and Taolome Villages…… 29
Table 7: Number of households with covered tanks and microbial contamination... 31
Table 8: Water handling practices in Matlou, Sekuruwe and Taolome Villages… 32
Table 9: Collection of water from tanks and microbial contamination…………….. 34
List of Pictures
Matlou village diesel borehole pump ......................................................................... 7
Matlou village collection point ................................................................................... 8
Taolome village borehole with handpump ……………………………………. ............ 10
vi
Abbreviations
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
BGBB Brilliant Green Bile Broth
DOH Department of Health, South Africa
DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, South Africa
E. coli Escherichia coli
EDTA Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid
HCL Hydrochloric Acid
MDG Millennium Developmental Goal
PNH Provincial Government of North Holland, Netherlands
SOPs Standard Operation Procedures
SnCL2 Stannous Chloride
TISAB Total Ionic Strength Adjustment Buffer
WHO World Health Organisation
WRC Water Research Commission, South Africa
mg/l milligrams per litre
KI Potassium Iodide
NaOH Sodium Hydroxide
AgNO3 Silver Nitrate
NH4 Ammonia
RDP Reconstruction and Development Plan
vii
List of Definition of Terms
Arsenic
Arsenic is a semi-metal used as a rat poison.
Atomic absorption spectrometric method
Atomic absorption spectrometric is a method used for analysis of copper and cadmium.
Cadmium
Cadmium is a highly poisonous metal used for the protection of metals from corrosion.
Calcium
Calcium is an alkaline earth metal that reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide
Chemical contamination
It is the presence of an increased number of chemical characteristics in water.
Chloride
Chloride is a negatively charged component of table salt (NaCl).
Coliform bacteria
Coliform bacteria are a collection of microorganisms living in large numbers in the
intestines of human, warm and cold-blooded animals.
Electrode method
Electrode method is used for analysis of fluoride.
Ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid Titrimetric Method
Ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) Titrimetric is a method used for analysis of
calcium and total hardness.
Feacal coliforms
Feacal coliforms indicate recent faecal pollution of water and potential risk of contracting
infectious diseases.
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Flame photometric method
The flame photometric method was used for analysis of potassium.
Fluoride
Fluoride is an element needed during tooth formation for the hardening of the tooth
enamel.
Kruskal-Wallis Method
It is a nonparametric statistical analysis of variance to compare more than two variables
when they are not normally distributed.
Membrane Filtration method
Membrane Filtration method was used for the capturing of any sediment present in
water.
Microbial contamination
Microbial contamination refers to waterborne microorganisms from human and animals’
faecal wastes.
Nitrate
Nitrate is the end product of oxidation process between ammonia and nitrite, and it is
needed as a plant nutrient.
Phenoldisulfonic Acid method
The phenoldisulfonic acid method is used for analysis of nitrate.
Potassium
Potassium is an alkali metal, which is regarded as an essential dietary constituent.
Potentiometric method
Potentiometric method is used for the analysis of Chloride.
Silver diethyl-dithio-carbamate Method
Silver diethyl-dithio-carbamate is a method used for analysis of arsenic.
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Total coliform count method
Total coliform count method indicates the general hygienic quality of water.
Total hardness
Total hardness is calculated as calcium and magnesium concentrations expressed as
mg/l calcium carbonate.
Water quality
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of the water.
Water security
Water security is the ability to have access to sufficient quantities of clean water in order
to maintain minimal standards of food from clean water
x
Maps
Map 1: Overview of Limpopo Province Showing the Three Project Villages
xi
Map 2: Overview of the Three Project Villages
xii
Abstract
Water and sanitation inadequacy is still an environmental health challenge in several
regions worldwide and a billion people lack access to safe water, while 2.4 billion people
have inadequate sanitation [2].
Assessment of water quality by its chemistry includes measures of elements and
molecules dissolved or suspended in water. Commonly measured chemical parameters
include arsenic, cadmium, calcium, chloride, fluoride, total hardness, nitrate, and
potassium [16]. Water quality can also be assessed by the presence of waterborne
microorganisms from human and animals’ faecal wastes. These wastes contain a wide
range of bacteria, viruses and protozoa that may be washed into drinking water supplies
[21].
Three villages were selected for water quality analysis, based on their critical situation
regarding access to water and sanitation: namely, Matlou, Sekuruwe and Taolome
villages, situated in the Mogalakwena Local Municipality within the Waterberg district of
the Limpopo Province, South Africa. A proposal was written to the Province of North
Holland (PNH) and was approved for funding to start with the implementation of those
projects, with 20% of each village’s budget allocated for water quality research [26].
This was a cross sectional, analytical study to investigate the chemical and microbial
quality of water in Matlou, Sekuruwe and Taolome villages. The study was also
conducted to explore methods used by household members to store and handle water in
storage tanks. Water samples were collected and analysed according to the standard
operating procedures (SOPs) of the Polokwane Municipality Wastewater Purification
Plant in Ladanna, Polokwane City of South Africa. The questionnaire used was adopted
from the one used for cholera outbreak in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa.
Results show that water from all sources in all the villages had increased total hardness
concentration. Water from the borehole in Matlou village had increased number of total
coliform bacteria. There were increased total and faecal coliform bacteria in storage
tanks samples from Matlou village. Water samples from reservoirs in Sekuruwe and
Taolome villages did not test positive for any microbial contamination. Water from
xiii
informally connected yard taps in Sekuruwe village had increased total coliform bacteria,
while increased total and faecal coliforms were found in households’ storage tanks.
Water samples from communal taps in Taolome village had minimal number of total
coliform bacteria, while water from storage tanks had both increased total and faecal
coliform bacteria.
Matlou village was the only place with increased nitrate concentration at the households’
storage tanks. While all the villages had microbial contamination, Taolome village had
the least number of coliform bacteria in water samples from households’ storage tanks
as compared to Matlou and Sekuruwe villages.
It is concluded that water from sources supplied by the municipalities are safe to be
consumed by humans while water from informally connected taps and households’
storage tanks are not safe to be used without treatment.
It is recommended that a health and hygiene education package be prepared for all the
villages, so that handling of water from the main source into their storage tanks can be
improved. Secondly, it is recommended that water in all sources be treated for total
hardness and water in storage tanks in Matlou village be treated for nitrate. Thirdly, it is
recommended that water be accessed everyday of the week, so that people do not use
unsafe water supplies.
xiv
