Unheard Voices: Perceptions of Schools and Parental Involvement in a Small African American Community Benjamin S. Petty Sam Houston State University Special Note: Thanks to Dr. Kimberly Grantham Griffith and Dr. William Allan Kritsonis for getting the article published in the United States of America. ______________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT One of the most influential factors of student development is parental involvement (Chen, 1999; Gutman & Midgley, 2000; McWayne, Hampton, Fantuzzo, Cohen, & Sekino). However, many schools experience little or no African American parental involvement (Lapp, Nagel, & Tinajero). Several theories have been used to either explain or offer solutions to this dilemma (Bradley, Johnson, and Rawls, 2005; Heller & Fantuzzo, 1993; O’Bryan, Braddock, & Dawkns, 2006; Su-Chu & Williams, 1996). The shortcoming, however, is that these ideas are not inclusive of the voices of African American parents. Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative research is to examine African American parents’ perceptions about their involvement in schools. In particular, this study focuses on their perceptions of schools. Another purpose is to examine their perceptions of parental involvement. ______________________________________________________________________________ Purpose of the Article The purpose of this qualitative research is to examine African American parents’ perceptions about their involvement in schools. In particular, this study focuses on their perceptions of schools. Another purpose is to examine their perceptions of parental involvement. The overarching research questions for this study are: 1. What are African American parents’ perceptions of schools? 2. What are African American parents’ perceptions of parental involvement? The significance of this research lies in the findings’ potential to expand the knowledge base regarding African American parental involvement in schools. Research has highlighted the positive impact of parental involvement on the academic outcomes of African American students (Jeynes, 2005). Yet, school leaders still face the daunting challenge of recruiting parental involvement in schools. This discrepancy suggests that a disconnect exists between African American parents and schools. This research could identify possible reasons for their detachment from schools. Second, this study uses African American parents’ voices to explain factors that influence their involvement in schools. Unlike theoretical assumptions, their voices provide a rich understanding on African American parental perspectives of today’s schooling practices. As a result, this baseline data could provide school leaders with an authentic understanding of a) the lack of African American parental involvement; and b) African American parents’ perceptions of schools. Theoretical Framework Critical Race Theory Critical Race Theory (CRT) originated in the 1970’s in response to Critical Legal Studies (CLS) inability to sufficiently address the effects of race and racism in the U.S. legal system. CRT developed from the work of legal scholars such as Derrick Bell, Alan Freeman, and Richard Delgado (Delgado & Stefanic, 2001). CRT challenges the prevailing dialogue on racism as it relates to education by investigating how current practices in education inadvertently and/or purposely repress non-white ethnic groups. CRT has four major themes. First, a CRT of education recognizes the role that racism has played in the structuring of the educational process and that the educational process is oppressive and unfair to certain racial groups based on the racism found at its’ foundational core. Second, CRT seeks to challenge cultural and social beliefs held by dominant groups in this country. Third, CRT is committed to social justice and the elimination of racism, sexism, and poverty, and the empowerment of minority groups. Lastly, CRT seeks to promote the experiential knowledge of women and people of color as legitimate and critical avenues of understanding and appreciating the struggles of subjugated people. This theory applies to my article because schools are detached from many African American parents. The inability and unwillingness of many educators to compassionately and sincerely recognize the difficult lived experiences of students and families of color has caused many African American families to be disenfranchised from the educational process. Treating every student the same and not being cognizant of the struggles faced by those of color is a disservice to students and their families and unconsciously fosters and promotes racism in education. Literature Review African American Parental Involvement: Symptoms and Solutions Literature has supported the claim that parental involvement in African American communities is weak (O’Bryan et al, 2006). Bradley, Johnson, and Rawls (2005) suggest that many African American parents feel uncomfortable and unwelcomed in the educational system when they ask questions or challenge authority. Flood, Lapp, Nagel, and Tinajero (1995) stated that most parents are deeply concerned about their children’s education, but busy schedules hinder their involvement. Trotman (2001) emphasized that the principals and teachers’ low expectations for African American students also contribute to the lack of African American parental involvement in schools. In particular, many African American parents perceive schools as being unwelcoming, unsympathetic institutions. Yet many schools do not pursue long-term strategies for forming relationships with African American parents (Bradley, Johnson, and Rawls, 2005). Trotman (2001) argued that schools must be diligent in seeking unique ways to engage African American parents in schools. Along the same lines, Administrators, teachers, and African American parents must diligently work together to create favorable educational experiences for African American children. According to Trotman (2001), one strategy should be contact African American parents before problems arise, possibly erasing their negative perceptions of schools. McKay, Atkins, Hawkins, Brown, and Lynn (2003) also found that formal contact with school officials has a positive impact on African American parents’ involvement in school. Clearly, a proactive approach should be used to involve African American parents in schools. Methodology Research Design The design for this research study involved qualitative methods using a phenomenological design. In essence, this study explored African American parent’s storied perceptions of parental involvement and schools. Better stated, I was able to hear the participants’ issues as they pertain to their children and community. Sample This study consisted of a purposeful sample of six African American parents from a community in a small town in Texas. This community consists of primarily low SES African American families whose children have historically done poorly academically. Participant one was a 32-year-old mother of three. She was married, but separated from her husband. She has three children currently in school. She has a daughter in fourth grade, a son in second grade, and another daughter in Head Start. She is a life long resident of this area, growing up in the adjacent town and living in this particular community for the last eight years. She works full time at a local restaurant, and her mother provides care for her children when she is at work. We met at the participants’ home on a Tuesday evening, as this was the most convenient time for her to meet. The interview was conducted while the participant made dinner for her family. The interview was an hour and fifteen minutes in duration. Participant two was a 34 year-old, single mother of two. She had two children currently in the school system. Her oldest son is an eighth grader at one of the junior high schools in the district, while the younger son is a fourth grade student at one of the local elementary schools. Participant two has spent her entire life in this area. She has a full time job that requires her to work late into the evening. She relies on the older son to be the childcare provider until she gets home in the evening. I conducted a one-hour interview on a Wednesday morning at her residence. Due to a very busy work schedule, this was the only time she could meet with me. Participants three and four were a married couple with two children. The oldest child was an eighth grade junior high school student and the younger child is a fifth grade student at an intermediate school. Both parents work full time jobs in the area. The mother, participant four, was born and raised in this community, and was a recent graduate from the local university and works as a math teacher at a junior high school in a neighboring school district. Participant three did not grow up in this area. The interview was conducted on a Sunday afternoon at the residence of the participants. Participants five and six were a married couple with two children. The oldest child was a fourth grade student at one of the elementary schools, and the youngest child was a second grade student at the same school. Both the mother and father work full time jobs and are very active in the community. The father, participant five, is 26 years-old and serves as a part time pastor at one of the community churches as well as a peewee football coach. Participant six, the mother, is 34 years-old and a lifelong resident of this community, while participant five grew up in a nearby town. The interview took place on a Sunday afternoon at the home of the participants. Instrumentation I used a 10-item open-ended interview protocol to conduct semi-structured interviews with the parents (Appendix A). The interview protocol measured the parents’ perceptions and beliefs about schools and parental involvement. To support the reliability of the interview questions, my principal and a doctoral colleague reviewed all questions and checked for bias, unclear, and leading questions. Data Collection I telephoned each parent and solicited their participation in the study. I then conducted face-to-face interviews with each participant. Based of my previous relationships with the participants, I believe that they gave honest and truthful responses. Each participant was asked the same basic set of interview questions taken from the aforementioned interview protocol. The interviews lasted approximately one hour. All of the interviews were conducted in the homes of the participants. Ethical Considerations Ethical issues were addressed from the onset of the study. The confidentiality of the participants was ensured by the responses of the participants remaining anonymous. Every effort was taken to ensure that anonymity was guaranteed both for all participants and the school district. Validity and Reliability The effect of researcher bias was addressed using reflexivity. Reflexivity means, “the researchers reflect on their own biases, values, and assumptions and actively write them into their research” (Creswell, 2005, p. 50). Each transcribed interview was divided into segments and themes by the researcher as well as another outside source. Data Analysis Each interview was transcribed for data analysis. I then read the transcripts carefully, breaking the transcripts into smaller, significant segments. I carefully analyzed each segment looking for recurring patterns and themes. The four themes identified were (a) personal relationships, (b) positive school climate, (c) treatment of students, and (d) roles of parents. Trustworthiness The purpose of trustworthiness in this qualitative inquiry is to support the argument that the inquiry’s findings are worth paying attention to (Creswell, 1998; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). In order to make sure the findings in this study are transferable between the researcher and those being studied, thick description was necessary (Creswell, 1998). Qualitative inquiry is different from conventional experimental precedent of attempting to show validity, soundness, and significance. In this study I focused on four issues of trustworthiness: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Credibility is an evaluation of whether or not the research findings represent a conceptual interpretation of the data drawn from the participants’ original data; credibility was enhanced by prolonged engagements with participants, member checks, and the establishment of an audit trail (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Transferability focused on the degree to which the findings of this inquiry can apply or transfer beyond the bounds of this study (Creswell, 1998). I achieved transferability by providing thick, rich descriptions of the parents’ perceptions of schools and parental involvement. Dependability was used as an assessment of the quality of the integrated processes of data collection, data analysis, and theory generation (Creswell, 1998). Confirmability is a measure of how well the inquiry’s findings are supported by the data collected (Creswell, 1998; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Within these terms there are specific methodological strategies for demonstrating qualitative rigor, such as the audit trail, member checks when coding, categorizing, or confirming results with participants, peer debriefing, negative case analysis, structural corroboration, and referential material adequacy (Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olson, & Spiers, 2002). Without rigor, research is worthless; it becomes fiction and loses its utility (Morse et al., 2002). By creating thick description I ensured that meanings and interpretations of participants were embedded in their stories to achieve verisimilitude (Glesne, 1999). Results The first research question analyzed the parents perceptions’ of school. The interview questions were (1) Talk about your child’s school based experience. What does it look like once they leave elementary school? (2) What are the benefits of the school experience? (3) In regards to your own children, how would you want schools changed to better serve them? (4) What do you like about the curriculum? Any changes, additions? Anything missing? (5) What is the role of the principal? AP? Teacher? Parent? How do they all work together? (6) Describe the things that make you feel welcome in schools. What makes you feel unwelcome? Have you experienced any of this in CSISD? How did you respond? (7) What do you believe CSISD is trying to achieve? How are they doing? Why or why not? The findings revealed three themes related directly to this research question. Those themes were (a) personal relationships, (b) school climate, and (c) unequal treatment of African American students. The second research question analyzed the parents perceptions’ of parental involvement. The interview questions were (1) In what ways do you support your kids in school? Why is this important? (2) What needs to happen to increase communication? (3) You are very involved in your child’s education. The perception is that many other parents in this community are not. Why do you believe this is? The findings revealed one theme related to these questions. That theme was (d) roles of parents (subcategories: what happens at home and ways parents show support). Personal Relationships One of the questions in the interview protocol asked the participants to discuss what they believed the role of the principal, assistant principal, teacher, and parent is. A reoccurring theme found throughout the participants’ responses to this question was the idea of personal relationships. The majority of the participants maintained the view that one of the major roles of administrators and teachers was to form a personal relationship with the students as well as the parents. Participant one stated, The role of the principal is to have a relationship with the students. I appreciate what you do to have a relationship with all of the kids so that they can have a respect for what you do. Not just for my kids, but for all the kids. The role of the teacher is to educate the student as well as have a relationship with the student. Participant one continued to explain that she believes the relationship that the child and the teacher have allows the student to feel more comfortable in class. Participant two addressed the question in similar terms. Participant two stated, The role of the principal is to oversee the children and to have a bond with the children and to have a bond with the parents. The only way I am going to know what is going on is to have that relationship with the principal and teachers. They are my children’sparents when they are at school. Participants 5 and 6 also discussed the relationships between their family and school personnel. Participant five stated, “the teachers and administrators actually take the time to come and meet with the families. I enjoy the teachers and administrators.” Participant six stated, Relationships are very necessary. When they are not home, we entrust them in your care. If something is going on at school, then the teacher should know how to contact the parents and have a relationship with them and the children. They can know what to expect from each other. School Climate Another question in the interview protocol specifically addressed the area of school climate. The question asked participants to describe the things that make them feel welcome in schools as well as the things that make them feel unwelcome. They were also asked to discuss what their experiences in the school district were related to this question. Participants talked about the idea of a smiling face greeting them when they come into the building. Participant one stated that, “I like to see smiling faces when I walk up. The warm welcome I get. The teachers telling me that they love my kids. It makes me feel good that the teachers want to be around them”. Participant two answered similarly. She stated that “greetings, smiling faces, speaking with the kids, and helping me if I am lost” made her feel welcome when she came to the school. Participants three and four offered parallel comments as well. Participant three stated, A receptionist at a particular school would not immediately acknowledge your presence. She had a very negative attitude. The receptionist at another school made you feel welcome even if she didn’t mean it. At the junior high, people will walk right by and not even say a word. It has a cold atmosphere. If I feel uncomfortable, then you can only imagine what the kid is feeling. I have experienced both within the school district. Participants five and six held the same view as the other participants on this issue. They stated that You feel welcome when you walk in the door and you are embraced by an employee. How do they greet you? Are they friendly with you? I like to see a smiling face. It is very uplifting. They don’t know what I went through before coming to school. It is a good feeling. All of my experiences have been good in the district. Unequal Treatment of African American Students Another theme that ran throughout the responses of the participants was the unequal treatment of African American students. This theme was found in the responses to several questions, not one question in particular. The participants stated in their responses that African American students are treated differently in comparison to their White counterparts. Participant one stated, Where I grew up, the teacher didn’t judge me. I want them to treat me as they treat the others. The children see that. The kids can sense that. I was treated differently. Kid’s sense the difference. Some people pull towards their own race. Some intentional and some unintentional. My oldest daughter has had teachers that have treated her differently than others. And I have gone and pointed that out. I think that it is important for teachers to be shown when they have done that unintentionally or intentionally. Participant two also spoke to the idea of unequal treatment of African American students. Participant two said, It is important for the children to feel smart and not to feel left out. The black kids feel that they are being left out because they are not being called on. Teachers should look at each child as an individual and not compare them to another child. All children are going to learn in different ways. They are at different spots at different times. There should be more training for the teachers on how to deal with the kids with different behaviors. Participants three and four also made mention of the unequal treatment of African American students. Participant three stated, There is not a large number of African American students, and even less teachers. They feel like they are on an island. When they do complain, there complaint is not given as much weight as their classmates. They have learned that sometimes you have to be forceful without being rude to get your point across. If you choose to keep your mouth closed, you will get overlooked. You have to open your mouth. The African American students are overlooked more intentionally than unintentionally. If the student does not say something, they forget about the student. The teachers do not feel comfortable with the student because of their background, so they take the hands off approach. Participant four followed up by saying that every teacher should be forced to attend a racial awareness class. This, she believed, would aid in helping teachers treat the African American students more fairly. Role of the Parents-What Happens at Home The last theme that was constant throughout many of the responses was the role the parents play in their children’s education. The first component that emerged from this theme regarding the role of the parents was what happens at home. Participant one stated, They should learn at home. The problem is what is going on at home. If parents paid more attention to their kids, school would be a better place. Many of the kids think that because my mom puts up with this at home, so the teacher should. No. I tell my kids that the teachers are not going to put up with your crap. Parents need to call. The parents need to be responsible. Parents have to stay involved with their kids. They need to put more energy in with their kids. People have to grow up. It is a self-thing. You cannot take someone’s hand and make them go. You can invite them. You can lead a horse to water but you can’t make them drink. There is nothing a school can do to make them care. Participant two also spoke in terms of the things that should be happening at home. Participant two stated, Set the foundation at home, so when they go to school, they know what to expect. I teac my boys early how to read and do math. When they go to school, they need to have a foundation so they are not behind. Some parents just don’t try to get involved. A lot of kids just raise themselves. No boundaries from their parents. I don’t know why they have that attitude. Some parents care and some do not. They don’t show up at school. You have got to be involved. Role of the Parents-The Ways Parents Show Support Parental support comes in many different shapes and sizes. What is typically thought of as parental support may be different depending on the parent. The second component that emerged from this theme regarding the role of the parent was the different ways that parents show support. Participant one looked at parental support in terms of helping with homework. She stated, They do homework as soon as they get home. They are going to get their homework done. C’s are okay if they do their best, but I expect A’s and B’s. They have to work hard for it. We read together. We do homework together. Their report card is their paycheck. If they don’t understand something, then we sit down together and try to do it together. I am trying to get my schedule so that I can be more active and see them at school. Once they get home, they are still in school mode. If I get them when they are still in school mode, we can get it done. I let them know that doing their homework is important. Participant two looked at parental support in a similar manner. She said, Talk to them about school. I ask them if there is anything I can help them with. I find resources. If there is something that I do not understand, I will find someone that can help them with it. Help with class work, field trips, and materials for at home. Participants five and six also mentioned homework as a means for supporting your kids in school. They stated, When we pick them up and we get home, it is homework time. If they have a question, we are right there. The second we walk through the door, it is homework time. If we don’t show interest, they will not either. We have to check and play a big role to make sure they get it done. Participant five also said that many African American parents want to be involved, but many of them don’t know how. Participants three and four also talked about parental involvement. Participant three stated, A lot of parents are not involved until it gets so bad that they go up there and scream and curse. They are involved, but not in a constructive way. They don’t get involved until something bad arises. A lot of times they go when they have behavioral problems. Many parents do not have the tools to help academically, so they become involved to make sure they are treated fairly. They show their kids they care by lighting in to someone because they cannot show they care by helping with work. Discussions and Implications The findings from research question one revealed three themes. One of the major reoccurring themes was the idea of personal relationships among school personnel and the school community. The data suggested that personal relationships play an important role in how African American parents perceive schools. The overarching belief among the parents interviewed was that the role of principals, assistant principals, and teachers is to build and maintain a personal relationship with both the students and the parents. This, however, takes intense, prolonged effort on the part of school personnel. Administrators and teachers should pay close attention to the amount of time they are spending getting to know families on a more personal, intimate level. Schools and school districts should spend time considering ways to accomplish this goal on a large scale. This is a community issue, not just a school or school district issue. Thought should be given to ways that schools can lead their communities in building relationships with all stakeholders. Another theme evident in the responses of the parents was school climate. All of the parents reported that when they enter a school building, it makes them feel good when school personnel greet them with a warm welcome and smiling face. The importance of school climate deserves more attention. It is important for both administrators and teachers to welcome visitors, especially African American parents, to campus every time an opportunity presents itself. Schools need to adopt a “make their day” attitude. A third theme found in the participants responses was the belief that African American students are treated unequally compared to their White classmates. The majority of the participants believed that African American students receive unequal treatment at school. Some of this, the parents believed, is intentional, while some is unintentional. This perception, whether correct or incorrect, deserves serious attention from school administrators. Perception is reality. If schools have parents and students who feel they are not being treated equally, then work is needed in that area to fix the problem. Schools and districts should reflect on their day-to-day practice in order to diagnose if there is a serious issue that needs to be discussed and solved. One of the parents in the study suggested that teachers should be required to attend a race awareness class. Districts need to take steps in this direction in order to ensure that every student is being treated equally. The findings from research question two revealed one theme. That theme was the role of the parents. All of the participants interviewed articulated the belief that parents play a considerable role in making a child a successful student. Helping their children with homework, resources, discipline, and basic support, they believed, contributes significantly to academic success. This places a heavy burden on schools, districts, and community leaders to be creative in finding ways to promote and encourage African American parents to be more involved in education. Teachers, principals, preachers, and pastors will play a big role in leading this change. If a sustained transformation is going to occur, it will take a team effort from all community members to make it happen. The themes identified in the findings tie directly to the theoretical framework and literature review. The idea that many African American parents are detached from schools due to the social ideology of the dominant culture was supported in the responses of the participants. The feeling that teachers and schools treat African American students differently and unfairly is a real perception of a majority of the parents interviewed. This has serious implications for schools and school leaders. If schools are unable to connect with parents in a genuine and authentic way to form a partnership in the education of African American students, the disparity between the achievement of African American and White students will continue to exist. It is imperative that schools accept this reality and work at bringing African American parents back in to the educational process. It is also important for schools to reflect on their practice and interaction with all parents to try to determine the root cause of the problem. Are negative perceptions of the school having an adverse influence on relationships, or are strained relationships yielding negative perceptions? Schools will need to work at repairing both of these crucial contexts in order to restore positive perceptions as well as promote positive relationships among all campus stakeholder groups. Limitations One limitation of this research study is that the parents that I interviewed may not have been completely honest and truthful in their responses. Based on the good relationships that I enjoyed with the participants through two years of interaction and involvement in school and community events, I had every reason to believe that the responses were sincere. However, the potential is there for untruthful responses. Another limitation of this study is the understanding that the majority of the participants’ children are students at the same school. It is impossible to know the extent that parents share the same views at other schools across the district. Because of this fact, the findings of this study are not transferable to other schools. While there is a good chance that other parents in the district share these same views, there is no way of knowing for sure. Future Research Directions This study could be taken in several possible directions of further research. One such direction could be to conduct a similar study using a larger, more diverse sample. The sample used in this study consisted of four families from very similar backgrounds. While the information gleaned from those interviews was very rich and meaningful, hearing the stories and thoughts of parents from a more diverse background could provide further confirmation that schools are detached from many African American families. Picking a larger sample made up of low, mid, and high SES families would present a very interesting mix of participants that could offer very significant perspectives related to the issue of school performance and parental involvement in the African American community. Concluding Remarks In conclusion, the overarching research questions for this study were: 1. What are African American parents’ perceptions of schools? 2. What are African American parents’ perceptions of parental involvement? The information gleaned from the interviews conducted with the participants revealed four themes. The first three themes; personal relationships, school climate, and the unequal treatment of African American students were directly related to the first research question. The last theme, roles of parents, spoke to the second research question. Based on the finding of this study, schools have work to do in building relationships and reengaging African American parents in the educational process. The perceptions of the participants, whether accurate or mistaken, are perceptions that must be addressed in order for growth to occur for many African American children. Schools must be diligent in seeking ways to work with African American parents that will encourage and persuade them to become involved in schools in ways that will foster and promote success for their children. References Astone, N. M., & McLanahan, S. S. (1991). Family structure, parental practices, and high school completion. American Sociological Review, 56, 309-20. Barton, P. E. (2004). Why does the gap persist? Educational Leadership, 62(3), 9-13. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Bradley, C., Johnson, P. & Rawls, G. (2005). School counselors collaborating with African American parents. Professional School Counseling, 8(5), 424-7. Creswell, J. W. (2005). 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Involving the African American parent: Recommendations to increase the level of parent involvement within African American families. The Journal of Negro Education, 70(4), 275-85. Van Voorhis, F. L. (2003). Interactive homework in middle school: Effects on family involvement and science achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 96(6), 32338. Appendix A Interview Protocol 1. Talk about your child’s school based experience. What does it look like once they leave elementary school? 2. What are the benefits of the school experience? 3. In regards to your own children, how would you want schools changed to better serve them? 4. In what ways do you support your kids in school? Why is this important? 5. What do you like about the curriculum? Any changes, additions? Anything missing? 6. What is the role of the principal? AP? Teacher? Parent? How do they all work together? 7. Describe the things that make you feel welcome in schools. What makes you feel unwelcome? Have you experienced any of this in CSISD ? How did you respond? 8. What needs to happen to increase communication? 9. What do you believe CSISD is trying to achieve? How are they doing it? Why or why not? 10. You are very involved in your child’s education. The perception is that many other parents from this community are not. Why do you believe this is?