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FOWLERS GAP ARID ZONE
RESEARCH STATION
ANNUAL REPORT 2002
Submitted by the University of New South Wales to the
Minister for Natural Resources
Edited by Dr. D. B. Croft
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................1
2 ADMINISTRATION .............................................................................................................................................1
2.1 Management Committee ..................................................................................................................................1
2.2 Graziers’ Committee........................................................................................................................................2
2.3 Consultative Committee ..................................................................................................................................2
2.4 Station Staff .....................................................................................................................................................2
3 SEASONAL CONDITIONS .................................................................................................................................3
4 WATERS ...............................................................................................................................................................3
4.1 Surface Waters ................................................................................................................................................3
4.2 Ground Waters ................................................................................................................................................3
4.3 Water Improvements and Repairs ...................................................................................................................4
5 OTHER IMPROVEMENTS .................................................................................................................................4
5.1 Fences and Yards.............................................................................................................................................4
5.2 Homestead .......................................................................................................................................................4
5.3 Eco-Tourism ....................................................................................................................................................5
6 EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY......................................................................................................................5
6.1 Maintenance ....................................................................................................................................................5
6.2 Purchases .........................................................................................................................................................5
7 MOTOR VEHICLE REPORT...............................................................................................................................5
8 STOCK REPORT ..................................................................................................................................................5
8.1 Livestock .........................................................................................................................................................5
8.2 Stock Account .................................................................................................................................................6
8.2.1 Sheep Account .......................................................................................................................................6
8.2.2 Cattle Account .......................................................................................................................................7
8.3 Agistment ........................................................................................................................................................7
8.4 Noxious weed control ......................................................................................................................................7
9 WOOL PRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................7
10 FINANCE........................................................................................................................................................8
10.1 Summary .....................................................................................................................................................8
11 AUSTRALIAN PLAGUE LOCUST COMMISSION - Light Trap ..............................................................11
12 Year of the Outback Conference ...................................................................................................................12
13 VISITORS .....................................................................................................................................................14
13.1 UNSW field trips/groups to Fowlers Gap .................................................................................................14
13.2 UNSW personnel to Fowlers Gap ............................................................................................................14
13.3 Non-UNSW field trips/groups ..................................................................................................................14
13.4 Non-UNSW Australian academic visitors ................................................................................................15
13.5 International academics and students ........................................................................................................15
13.6 Government, Business and Other visitors .................................................................................................16
14 APPENDICES ...............................................................................................................................................18
Appendix 1: Membership of Consultative Committee 2002 ....................................................................................18
Appendix 2. Summary of monthly rainfall (mm) for 2002. .....................................................................................18
Appendix 3. Monthly and annual rainfall (mm) at the Fowlers Gap Station meteorological station, 1966-2002. ...19
Appendix 4: Annual Increase of Sheep 1966-2002 .................................................................................................20
Appendix 5: Lambing summary for the Main Flock, by paddock for 2002 (Lamb marking 13/8/02 – 11/9/02) .....21
15 Research Reports – 2002 ...............................................................................................................................22
Wildlife Tourism with Rangeland Kangaroos: Product development and implementation .....................................22
Conservation of arid zone biodiversity in the sheep grazing piosphere ...................................................................24
The role of functional muscle structure in our understanding of the characteristics of hopping in kangaroos.........25
Canopy interception losses in dryland shrubs: investigating a little-known component of the water balance .........25
An evaluation of factors leading to kangaroo-vehicle collisions in the arid zone of Australia ................................27
Energy requirements of juvenile red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) beyond pouch exit: the cost of growth) ............28
Year of the Outback Conference: Animal Function in Arid Environments .............................................................28
2
PREFACE
Fowlers Gap Arid Zone Research Station is located 112 km north of Broken Hill, New South
Wales (latitude 31.09° S, longitude 142.70°E) in the Parish of Hume, County Mootwingee.
Occupying Western Lands Lease No. 10194, an area of 38,888 hectares, the property is held by
the University of New South Wales as a ‘lease in perpetuity’ for the purpose of research, grazing
and tourism. The mission of the Station is to further understanding of the functioning of the arid
zone of NSW through research, teaching, interpretation and knowledge diffusion in a pastoral
context. It is the only research station in the arid zone of New South Wales and the winter rainfall
area of arid Australia. Areas have been monitored and data collected continuously, in some cases
for over 30 years. The Station and its records form a unique facility for research and education.
The University of New South Wales, in taking over the lease, undertook to carry out research and
provide facilities for relevant research programs that might be proposed by other universities and
government organisations. Research or other academic endeavour has been conducted by
schools/units of the University of New South Wales including: Biological, Earth &
Environmental Sciences, Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Fine Arts, The Built
Environment and the Centre for Remote Sensing and GIS. Other tertiary institutions have also
conducted research, chiefly, Macquarie University, University of Sydney, University of
Newcastle, University of New England and the Victorian universities: Monash, Melbourne and
La Trobe. Government organisations that have utilized the facilities include: the former Soil
Conservation Service of New South Wales (now part of the Department of Land and Water
Conservation), NSW and SA Departments of Agriculture and several Divisions of CSIRO.
Funding to support research has been provided by the University of New South Wales,
Australian Research Council, Wool Research Trust Fund, Rural Credits Development Fund,
Water Research Foundation of Australia, Australian Housing Research Council, Cooperative
Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism and a number of overseas governments and
universities.
In addition to its use for research, Fowlers Gap is used extensively for teaching, largely by way of
student field excursions. In recent years the Field Station has become a popular site for staff and
students from UNSW College of Fine Arts. Apart from the students of the University of New
South Wales, students from several other educational institutions such as ANU, Monash and
Adelaide Universities visit the Station. The Station also attracts visitors from overseas and
within Australia and has been the subject/site of numerous television documentaries, newspaper
articles and local and national radio reports.
The Field Station is administered by the Management Committee, consisting of representatives
from those Schools of the University of New South Wales that use the Field Station. The
Committee is assisted by two advisory groups - the Graziers’ Committee, a small group of
pastoralists who supply support and advice at an informal level, and the Consultative Committee,
an advisory group representing organisations associated with the pastoral industry, land and
wildlife conservation and other stakeholders in the West Darling region.
3
1 INTRODUCTION
The Field Station show-cased its pre-eminence in research and teaching in the Australian arid
zone through hosting and sponsorship of a conference on ‘Animal Function in Arid
Environments’ to mark the Year of the Outback. The research program showed its innovation
through a seminal study on the incidence and causes of road-killed kangaroos in the Outback, a
better understanding of the athleticism of red kangaroos and the causes of juvenile mortality, the
application of novel methodology to understand the water balance of shrubs in an arid
environment, and the use of GPS technology to re-define paddock usage by sheep. Research on
sheep and wool production was pursued by an examination of the productivity of Elite wool and
Dohne-Merino crosses against the Fowlers Gap flock. However, meaningful outcomes were not
realised under the severe drought conditions in 2002 and thus the trials will be recommenced in
late 2003. The commitment to improve facilities on the Station was followed through with
further significant upgrade of the core accommodations that will support future growth in
research, artistic, educational and ecotourism activities with outreach into local, national and
international communities.
The commercial operations of the Station were sound returning a surplus of $27,848 in spite of
larger than expected investments in maintaining and upgrading water supplies and stock feeding
to meet the demands of the drought. In part this surplus resulted for the sale of cattle at a good
price and the high value of wool offsetting a much reduced production. The surplus will be
invested in further refurbishment of infrastructure and activities to support research, teaching and
public education on the Station. Wool production in 2003 will be substantially lower than past
years with a much reduced flock. Costs will substantially higher to meet a staff restructure and
so the surpluses of the past few years will be drawn down from the overhang of the drought into
2003.
2 ADMINISTRATION
2.1 Management Committee
The Management Committee determines the utilisation of resources to maintain an adequate
level of income, and to meet the needs of the University in carrying out its teaching and research
programs at the Field Station.
The Committee during 2002 was:
Dr D.B. Croft (Chair) School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences
Emeritus Prof. T J Dawson School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences
A/Prof. J E Ongerth School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
Dr I. Murphy College of Fine Arts
Dr S. Mooney School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences
Ms M. Debus-Rogers Study Abroad
Mr. K. Horsell Campus Services Zone Operations
1
The Management Committee reported to the Vice-Chancellor via Professor Dennis Lincoln,
Dean of the Faculty of Science. The Committee thanks Professor Lincoln for his leadership and
interest in the activities of the Station.
Dr. J. Sammut vacated his position on the Fowlers Gap Management following the restructure of
the School of Geography. The staff and Committee thank him for his service and advice to the
station. Dr Scott Mooney joined the Committee to represent the interests of environmental
science and physical geography.
2.2 Graziers’ Committee
This committee was established in 1980 to advise the Management Committee on pastoral
activities on the Station. The Graziers’ Committee was unable to meeting with the Management
Committee in 2002 as members had pressing demands in managing their properties through
severe drought.
The current Committee is:-
Mr P R Beven
Mr K R Smith
Mr J A Bartholomaeus
Mr A Lacy
2.3 Consultative Committee
The inaugural meeting of this committee was held on the 13th April 1967 and foundation
members played a major role in the development of the Station and the initial formulation of
research directions.
The Committee has always comprised distinguished people from the rural industry and their
input into the Station over the years has been greatly appreciated by the University. The current
Consultative Committee (2001-present) is listed in Appendix 1. The Committee serves a term of
four years.
2.4 Station Staff
Mr. D P Adams Supervisor
Mr. W Evans Senior Field Assistant
Mr K Troeth Field Assistant
Mrs. C. Adams Casual Administration
Ms P. Rendell Casual Staff
Keith Troeth resigned in June and returned to Canberra. As part of a staff restructuring strategy,
ensuing from Paul Adams’ intention to resign in 2003, this position of Senior Field Assistant was
upgraded to Manager – Stock & Station Resources and was advertised in November. Candidates
were interviewed in December, resulting in Mr. Zane Turner from Polpah Station being
appointed to the position. He will commence duties, accompanied by his wife, Louise in January
2003.
2
Dr. David Croft will become Director of the Station in 2003 and assume the duties of
administration, promotion and student supervision.
Paul Adams and Will Evans operated the Station for the latter half of the year, assisted by casual
staff, Emma Taylor and Sonny Siemer, at general shearing. Penny Rendell continued her role of
being available when required for domestic and field duties admirably. Chris Adams continued
with administration and catering duties.
3 SEASONAL CONDITIONS
Decline in Station conditions carried over from 2001, and continued in 2002, developing into
severe drought as experienced in all of the Western Division and other districts throughout
Australia. Apart from an encouraging fall in January, no worthwhile rain was recorded until
November and the last day of the year. Some relief was gained from those two events, however
high temperatures and constant winds frustrated pasture improvement.
In summary, total recordings from all recording sites were well below average and arguably the
lowest in recorded history overall. Totals varied from 66.4mm at the Homestead to 40.4mm at
Gap Hills. Extreme deterioration of both perennial and annual pasture species occurred to the
point where some hand feeding was necessary. The only relief from drought occurred when
Fowlers Creek flowed substantially in December, filling water holes and providing summer grass
growth along the creek line and flood out areas.
Summaries of monthly and annual rainfall are detailed in Appendices 2 and 3 of this report.
4 WATERS
4.1 Surface Waters
All storages except Frieslich (4 m) were dry by November when some run off into Lake and
Nelia was gained. December saw substantial gains everywhere.
Advantage of the dry conditions was taken and some de-silting of tanks using the Station loader
took place as follows:
• Lake - 15 metre wide sump across the storage adjacent to the old recording tower.
• Nelia – Approximately two thirds of the dam proper was cleaned out.
• Sandstone – New tank completely de-silted. Old tank de-silted in 2001.
• Intention to de-silt Johnstone will be delayed due to catchment on 31st December.
4.2 Ground Waters
Continual use of ground waters was necessary during 2002. All bore equipment was renewed at
Smiths, Mandleman and Gorge. Sandstone was upgraded in 2000. Gorge mill and bore were
made operable as a drought measure and used extensively until November.
3
4.3 Water Improvements and Repairs
Drought associated improvements, both temporary and permanent, were made at considerable
cost.
A temporary stock watering system, involving Gorge bore as the source was developed and
pipelines, tanks and troughs were established to water Bald Hills, Gap Hills, Gorge and provide
back up for the Johnstone system.
Watering points in Salt 2 & 5 were centralized as a permanent improvement and to provide data
for a research project entitled “Conservation of arid zone biodiversity in the sheep grazing
piosphere”.
Equipment from the Gorge system could be used in the future to centralize watering points in
Salt 4, 6 & 1.
Capital expenditure on water improvements amounted to $25,088.
5 OTHER IMPROVEMENTS
5.1 Fences and Yards
Some improvements were made to the woolshed yards to provide easier stock access. General
maintenance was also carried out. Only minor repairs to fences and yards were made due to
water supply priorities.
5.2 Homestead
All residential buildings were fitted with hard- wired smoke alarms.
Other improvements and maintenance were as follows:
Quarters – Exterior woodwork and trim, veranda interior and conference room painted.
Stove alcove tiled and upgraded.
Cleaning cupboard rebuilt.
Main entrance landing installed.
Dormitory – Both hot water systems replaced with gas constant supply systems.
Shower alcoves rebuilt and tiled.
Cold room installed under rear veranda with access from mess area.
Landing at front entrance.
Laundry upgraded with new trough and provision for second washing machine.
Solarch – New kitchen bench tops.
Cottage 1 – Kitchen cupboards replaced and bathroom renovated.
Exterior painted.
Cottage 2 – Kitchen bench tops replaced.
Rear fly wire enclosure converted to sunroom and future laundry area.
Cottage 4 – Kitchen cupboards replaced.
4
5.3 Eco-Tourism
Research and preparation of interpretative materials has continued to been funded by CRC
Tourism. The facilities were promoted at the Broken Hill Community Roundtable in July. Some
use of the Station was made by local operators. Solar-powered night lighting was upgraded at
Connors hide to reduce maintenance with a sealed battery and timer switch.
6 EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY
6.1 Maintenance
Station plant was relatively trouble free and only normal scheduled maintenance was required.
Table 1: Value spent maintaining assets
Asset Value $
Vehicles 5,710
Farm Machinery 726
Waters 5,254
Buildings 73,395
An amount of $68,752 was contributed by Campus Services towards major renovations and
maintenance during 2002.
6.2 Purchases
The main items of capital expenditure are listed in Table 2.
Table 2: Expenditure on capital equipment.
Item Value ($)
Honda welder/Generator 2,795
Two deck stock crate 4,000
Nissan Patrol tray-top (less trade-in) 15,780
7 MOTOR VEHICLE REPORT
All vehicles performed well and only scheduled maintenance was required. An older KLR 250
motorcycle underwent top end repairs. The Toyota Landcruiser tray-top was traded on a Nissan
Patrol tray-top.
8 STOCK REPORT
8.1 Livestock
Accelerating drought conditions had a pronounced affect on reproduction, wool production and
surplus stock sales. This is documented in the following tables.
5
A preliminary assessment of the hogget ewes was made in June and undesirable types sold to
reduce numbers. Mr Pat Brown from Pooginook classed the remainder at shearing.
Reproduction was poor and resulted in only 52% lambs marked and a 14% overall loss between
marking and shearing which was brought forward one month in an attempt to avoid further stock
losses. An estimated 100 sheep were not shorn because of mustering difficulties and time
constraints at shearing. These will be shorn at a later date. No ewes were joined by the end of the
year due to poor body condition. Supplementary feeding of export quality oaten hay to rams and
some ewe flocks began post shearing.
A total of 144 Dohne F1 and control lambs were trucked to NSW Agriculture Research station at
Leeton for a preliminary finishing and assessment process. Concurrent drought conditions
resulted in insufficient lamb numbers to give any meaningful data towards assessment of lamb-
meat production potential from Merino-Dohne crossbreeds. The project was suspended until
joining in 2003 due to the severe drought conditions at the end of 2002.
Table 3: Yearly stock balance for 2002.
Ewes Wethers Rams Total
On Hand 01/01/02 4,314 228 168 4,710
Natural Increase 839 640 97 1,576
Sub- Total 5,153 868 265 6,286
Sales 1,262 409 0 1,671
Losses/ Rations 823 187 28 1,038
On Hand 31/12/02 3,068 272 237 3,577
8.2 Stock Account
8.2.1 Sheep Account
In contrast to 2001, approximately 900 fewer sheep were sold at Yelta at drought affected prices,
averaging only $13.03/head. While the ewe component achieved satisfactory value, there was
little demand for dry wethers.
Hogget ewes sold in June with 7 months wool realized $40/head.
Table 4: Sheep Account (1998-2002)
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Gross sales ($) 52,204 29,565 61,038 111,896 31,053
Less commission & Duty -3,748 -2,511 -5,154 -7,791 -2,374
Balance 48,456 27,054 55,884 104,105 28,679
Sundry Sales +95 +80 +1,924 0 0
Balance 48,551 27,134 57,808 104,105 28,679
Less freight charge -1,549 -2,305 -6,051 -6,494 -6,494
Net 47,002 24,829 51,757 97,611 25,442
6
8.2.2 Cattle Account
Fifty-one cattle were sold in 2002 for a net value of $21,335.
Table 5: Cattle Account (2002)
Total Cows Calves Steers Bulls
On hand 1/1/02 81 40 24 17 1
Natural increase 33 33
Rations/losses -4 1
Sales -51 11 26 12 2
On hand 31/12/02 59 26 31 4 0
8.3 Agistment
No stock were agisted in 2002.
8.4 Noxious weed control
No weed control was instigated due to absence of problem under severe drought conditions.
9 WOOL PRODUCTION
General shearing was brought forward one month to 21st October. The strategy was that to have
delayed until the normal November schedule, would have meant greater difficulty mustering
stock, with less feed and water available.
The combination of lower than average numbers and lower fleece weights resulted in only 131
bales produced, considerably less than recent years. Significant dust and sand was apparent in
some mobs and although drought induced average fibre diameter was lower, so was tensile
strength.
However, with a considerable increase in wool demand, value per kilogram was approximately
twice that of 2001.
Table 6: Main Shearing - Summary (1998-2002)
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Number of sheep shorn 7,380 6,946 8,088 7,187 5,213
Wool produced (kg) 41,040 36,222 45,230 40,966 25,227
Total bales produced 224 195 247 206 131
Wool/sheep (kg) 5.56 5.20 5.67 5.70 4.80
7
Table 7: Costs and Returns of Wool Sold at Main Shearing (1998-2002)
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Gross Proceeds ($) 113,370 94,529 124,421 180,916 157,353
Return/sheep ($) 15.36 13.61 15.38 25.17 30.18
Return/ha ($) 2.9 2.43 3.20 4.65 4.04
Average price, greasy
Cents/kg 276 261 275 441 624
$/bale 506 485 503 878 1201
Tax & selling costs ex freight
Cents/kg 28.54 26.78 21.03 28.45 32.82
% of gross return 10.34 10.26 7.64 6.44 5.26
Table 8: Comparative Total Wool Summary (1998-2002)
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Gross Income 113,370 94,529 124,421 180,916 157,353
Expenses
Shearing & 34,234 29,009 44,442 30,417 25,021
Crutching
Freight 2,016 1,755 2,581 2,062 1,245
Selling Expenses 11,713 9,703 9,574 11,657 8,280
Total Expenses 47,963 40,467 56,537 44,136 34,546
Net Income 65,407 54,062 67,884 136,780 122,807
10 FINANCE
10.1 Summary
Severe drought conditions resulted in reduced sheep and wool income. Expenditure of $7,868
was incurred to supplement stock feeding. Planned extensive building alterations were completed
during the year. Accommodation income remained steady and the University of New South
Wales continued to financially support the station. The combined annual income for 2002 was
$478,658. Income exceeded expenditure by $27,848. A detailed comparative income and
expenditure account for 2001 and 2002 is shown in Table 8.
Table 8: Statement of income and expenditure for 2001 & 2002.
INCOME 2001 2002
SALES OF WOOL 180,916 157,375
SALE OF SHEEP 111,896 31,747
SALE OF CATTLE 21,335
SALE OF GOATS 2,991
8
INCOME 2001 2002
ACCOMMODATION 22,296 40,183
SALE OF ASSETS 500
PHOTOCOPY & FAX 30 191
VEHICLE HIRE 4,569 5,437
COTTAGE RENTAL 2,538 2,012
INVESTMENT INCOME 38,628 19,010
T-SHIRTS & PHOTOS 59 49
AGISTMENT - CATTLE
ROO & DINGO BOOK SALES
UNIVERSITY CONTRIBUTION 120,000 120,000
UNSW MAINTENANCE GRANT 19,563 68,752
DIESEL REBATE 6,376
RESEARCH INFRASTRUCTURE 5,500
MISCELLANEOUS REIMBURSEMENTS 1,405 379
LOCUST TRAP 3,410 3,184
REST AREA CLEANING 3,504 3,504
TOTAL INCOME 518,681 478,658
EXPENSES 2001 2002
SALARIES 120,266 134,739
UNIVERSITY ONCOSTS 42,658 43,387
ADMINISTRATION
BANK CHARGES 255 1,392
MANAGEMENT MEETING 2,812 6,299
ANNUAL REPORT 784 598
TELEPHONE 4,776 1,639
POSTAGE & STATIONERY 483 758
VEHICLE INSURANCE 4,736 3,717
VEHICLE REGISTRATION 1,403 2,133
RATES & RENTAL + SUBS 1,418 538
ADVERTISING & ENTERTAINMENT 1,405 5,965
ELECTRICITY 5,653 6,903
SUBSCRIPTIONS 586 203
MISCELLANEOUS
TOTAL ADMINISTRATION 24,311 30,145
FUELS & OIL
DIESEL 6,553 8,460
PETROL 2,203 1,478
L.P.G. 2,899 3,216
LUBRICATING OILS 541 345
TOTAL FUELS & OILS 12,016 13,499
MAINTENANCE
BUILDINGS GENERAL 49,481 73,395
PASTURES 3,180
VEHICLES 5,571 5,710
9
EXPENSES 2001 2002
FARM MACHINERY 245 726
FENCES & YARDS 1,273
WATERS 889 5,254
ADMINISTRATIVE EQUIPMENT 241 504
LIVESTOCK EQUIPMENT
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
TOTAL MAINTENANCE 60,880 85,589
EQUIPMENT PURCHASES
TOOLS 933
BUILDINGS/COTTAGES 14,840 8,435
VEHICLES 15,830
FARM MACHINERY
FENCES & YARDS
WATERS 2,103 25,088
LIVESTOCK EQUIPMENT 111
RESEARCH INFRASTRUCTURE 5,500
OFFICE EQUIPMENT 10,095 1,995
TOTAL EQUIPMENT PURCHASES 27,038 57,781
LIVESTOCK EXPENSES
PURCHASE RAMS 3,000
SHEARING & CRUTCHING 30,417 24,021
FREIGHT - SHEEP 6,494 3,198
FREIGHT - WOOL 2,062 1,245
SELLING EXPENSES - SHEEP 7,791 1,762
SELLING EXPENSES - WOOL 11,657 8,280
GENERAL EXPENSES – SHEEP 6,895 23,887
SELLING EXPENSES - CATTLE 3,805
SHEEP RESEARCH CONSULTANCY 11,427 9,461
TOTAL LIVESTOCK EXPENSES 80,631 75,659
GENERAL EXPENSES
GENERAL HARDWARE 622
KITCHENWARE & CLEANING 794 2,668
GENERAL FREIGHT 243 1,009
RATIONS 5,302 4,924
MISC.GENERAL 1,051 788
VEG PHOTOS 249
KANGAROO & DINGO BOOKS
ECO TRAILS 111
MANAGEMENT &OPEN DAY
TOTAL GENERAL EXPENSES 7,750 10,011
TOTAL EXPENDITURE 375,550 450,810
TO RESERVES 143,131 27,848
10
Table 9: Main Sources of Income & Expenses, 1971-2002
Year Misc Inc. Wool Sales Sheep Sales Running Capital Contribution by
Expenses Expenses UNSW
1971 15,233 2,942 32,134 48,543 62,473
1972 39,919 9,857 45,673 14,760 1,108
1973 48,462 14,377 55,589 13,065
1974 49,880 1,394 67,687 8,597 22,278
1975 42,205 914 85,424 13,899 51,488
1976 47,268 1,237 95,638 39,022 77,936
1977 64,524 17,531 108,292 26,338 62,045
1978 35,762 8,000 108,405 13,542 85,440
1979 60,936 9,761 116,009 13,924 99,000
1980 87,718 52,788 145,481 10,084 71,831
1981 86,964 27,215 163,951 25,705 85,422
1982 89,166 58,880 182,044 15,956 96,304
1983 64,599 10,015 215,175 20,464 109,346
1984 81,376 22,235 187,912 37,465 109,410
1985 72,224 47,843 207,975 34,064 123,522
1986 123,456 27,202 246,907 43,589 132,927
1987 104,861 35,361 319,890 42,920 135,383
1988 188,934 32,419 279,310 8,275 125,942
1989 251,932 89,294 382,267 115,614 107,000
1990 158,661 24,810 412,033 47,524 110,000
1991 31,283 130,169 20,055 340,700 20,940 82,000
1992 39,888 92,581 36,058 256,027 19,307 122692
1993 49,528 93,464 21,657 264,717 24,304 140,000
1994 71,555 163,383 39,422 302,952 46,063 105,553
1995 53,271 142,319 73,932 334,978 40,096 40,096
1996 57,862 137,828 67,937 343,502 76,749 100,000
1997 61,171 139,875 65,729 295,266 56,179 110,000
1998 53,252 11,3370 52,299 278,188 13,129 120,000
1999 63,579 94,880 29,565 273,145 54,129 120,000
2000 89,497 132,974 61,038 300,753 43,645 120,000
2001 105,869 180,916 111,896 348,512 27,038 120,000
2002 169,576 157,375 31,747 393,029 57,781 120,000
11 AUSTRALIAN PLAGUE LOCUST COMMISSION - Light Trap
The Australian Plague Locust Commission (APLC) is responsible for monitoring the populations
of plague locust and for controlling outbreaks that pose a threat to rural industries. The
commission’s area of responsibility covers 2 million square kilometres, which is surveyed by
eight field staff. Thus information gained from landholders and light traps are most valuable to
11
the APLC, assisting them to make forecasts of locust activity and devise strategic control
measures.
There are 8 light traps currently operating in the following places:- Birdsville, Thargomindah,
Longreach, Julia Creek, Oodnadatta, Dulkaninna, Fowlers Gap and White Cliffs. Fowlers Gap
staff monitored and maintained the APLC trap situated at Fowlers Gap for the period covered by
this report. There was limited plague locust activity recorded during 2002 as expected in severe
drought.
12 Year of the Outback Conference
Fowlers Gap was a co-sponsor with the Australian Mammal Society of an (unofficial) ‘Year of
the Outback’ event. This took the form of a 3-day scientific conference on ‘Animal Function in
Arid Environments’ from 14 to 16 December. The conference was attended by around 50
delegates from Universities in NSW, Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and
Western Australia, from NSW and NT Parks and Wildlife Services, and personnel from
environmental consultancies. Professor Duncan Mitchell for the University of Witwatersrand in
South Africa was sponsored by the Station to present his world-leading research on field eco-
physiology and to discuss the role of Nature Conservancies in South Africa. The program for the
meeting is reproduced below and the abstracts are provided in the research section of this report.
Saturday 14 December
9:00 AM Welcome (Terry Dawson)
9:15 Introduction to Fowlers Gap (David Croft)
9:30 Review Paper by Chris Dickman (President, Australian Mammal Society)
Dickman, Chris R, Chin-Liang Beh, Silvia Ricci and Bobby Tamayo.
Resource tracking and exploitation in Australian desert rodents: a review.
10:30 Edwards, Glenn, Keith Saalfeld and Bretan Clifford.
How many feral camels are there?
11:00 Morning Tea
11:30 Paull, David
Ecophysiology of a sympatric rodent and dasyurid in a semi-arid environment.
12:00 Woolley, P. A. and C. Elliott.
Breeding in wild populations of the dasyurid marsupials Planigale ingrami, Sminthopsis macroura and
Sminthopsis douglasi.
12:30 Jones, R C, D Djakiew and J-L Dacheux
Sperm production in the male echidna: is it adapted for life in an arid environment?
1:00 PM Lunch
2:00 Croft, David, Ingrid Witte and Sally Truong.
Foraging behaviour of red kangaroos – from patch to landscape
2:30 Bilton, Amanda and David Croft
Factors affecting reproductive success in female red kangaroos
3:00 Munn, Adam and Terry Dawson
The ecophysiology of juvenile survival in the red kangaroo.
3:30 Hornsby, Peter
Differential responses by sympatric macropod taxa to severe drought.
4:00 Afternoon Tea
4:30 Tour of station
7:00 Conference Dinner
Pre-dinner drinks
Duncan Mitchell (University of Witwatersrand, South Africa)
Nature conservation on private land in South Africa
Entrée
12
Uli Kloecker (UNSW and University of Bonn)
Factors affecting roadkill on the Silver City Highway
Main course
Kangaroos of Broken Hill (Historic movie!)
Desert
Sunday 15th December
11:00 AM Professor Duncan Mitchell, Invited International Speaker
Survival in the heat: new insights from free-living African mammals
12:00 Maloney, Shane K., Andrea Fuller, Peter R Kamerman, Graham Mitchell, and Duncan Mitchell
Carotid blood and brain temperatures of free ranging western grey kangaroos (Macropus
fuliginosus)
12:30 Hulbert, A.J. & Paul Lewis Else
Metabolism: insight from arid zone reptiles
1:00 PM Lunch
2:00 Else, Paul L and A.J. Hulbert
Understanding Metabolism at the Cellular Level: a Comparative Approach
2:30 Geiser, Fritz
The role of torpor in arid zone mammals
3:00 Lee, Enhua and Terry Dawson
Mitochondria and muscles during cold acclimation in Sminthopsis crassicaudata
3:30 Webster, K N and Dawson, T J.
Kangaroos and rat-kangaroos: locomotion energetics and life in arid Australia
4:00 Afternoon Tea
4:30 Poster session
Heimeier, Rachel, Ray Bartolo and John Donald
Cyclic GMP systems in body fluid regulation of Notomys alexis
McCallum, Narelle, David Mulligan, Hamish McCallum and Tony Pople
Food and Water Requirements of the Bridled Nailtail Wallaby
Turner, Nigel , A.J. Hulbert and P.L. Else
Molecular Activity of Sodium Pumps in the Kidney of Mammals and Birds
Webster, K N, Raad, M C and Dawson, T J
Pelvic limb anatomy of the Red Kangaroo and Brush-tailed Bettong
Williams, Amy
The Ecology of Insectivorous Bats in the Simpson Desert: Habitat Use
7:00 Dinner (barbecue) and Bush Dance (Shearing Shed)
Monday 16th December
9:00 Withers, Philip
Cocoon-forming Frogs of Western Australia
9:45 Dawson, Terry
Are red kangaroos the kings of the outback? What about the big bird, the Emu.?
10:30 Astheimer, Lee B. and William A. Buttemer
Gonadal and endocrine correlates of breeding flexibility in arid-zone White-plumed Honeyeaters
11:00 Morning Tea
11:30 Buttemer, William A. and Lee B. Astheimer
Energetic considerations of moult/breeding overlap in arid-zone birds
12:00 Körtner, Gerhard and Fritz Geiser
Thermoregulation and torpor in the tawny frogmouth (Podargus strigoides)
12:30 Open Discussion
Why are small birds better thermoregulators in arid environments than small mammals?
1:00 PM Conference close and lunch
13
13 VISITORS
13.1 UNSW field trips/groups to Fowlers Gap
BEES September David Croft, Stuart Linton,
Rebecca Montague-Drake and
32 students
13.2 UNSW personnel to Fowlers Gap
Emeritus Prof. Terry Dawson BEES
Visiting A/Prof Euan Roberts BEES
Dr David Croft BEES
Dr Stuart Linton BEES
Dr Scott Mooney BEES
Amanda Bilton BEES
Rebecca Montague-Drake BEES
Adam Munn BEES
Enhua Lee BEES
Professor Dennis Lincoln Science
Terry O’Donnell COFA
John Hughes COFA
Kevin Horsell Facilities
David Low Facilities
Ben Young Aviation
13.3 Non-UNSW field trips/groups
UCLA April Dr Dan Blumstein, Dr Peter
Nonacs, Janice Daniel, Aviva
Leibert and 15 students
Monash July A/Prof David Dunkerley, Dr
Kate Brown (UTAS) +
students
Macquarie July Dr Paul Hesse + 3 students
Yanco Agricultural College August
Broken Hill Sea Scouts August Warren Dank
Rural Lands Protection Board September Director’s meeting
National Drought Assistance November
Committee
UNE November Dr Jim Charley, Dr Nigel
Warwick
La Trobe November Gresley Waiklin-King
Year of the Outback December
Conference
14
13.4 Non-UNSW Australian academic visitors
Dr Steve Hill CRC Landscape Environments & Mineral
Exploration
A/Prof. David Dunkerley Monash
Dr Kate Brown Monash
Dr Paul Hesse Macquarie
Dr Jim Charley UNE
Dr Nigel Warwick UNE
Dr Lee Astheimer Wollongong
Ray Bartolo Deakin
Chin-Liang Beh Sydney
Dr Peter Brice Queensland
Dr Bill Buttemer Wollongong
Dr Chris Dickman Sydney
John Donald Deakin
Dr Paul Else Wollongong
Dr Fritz Geiser UNE
Rachel Heimeier Deakin
Dr Peter Hornsby Adelaide
Prof. Tony Hulbert Wollongong
Unca Huble Wollongong
J. Kabat Tasmania
Gerhard Koertner UNE
Dr Elizabeth May Sydney
Dr Shane Maloney UWA
Narelle McCallum Queensland
David Paull UNE
Prof. Russell Jones Newcastle
Nigel Turner Wollongong
Dr Simon Ward Melbourne
Amy Williams Sydney
Prof. Phil Withers UWA
Dr Pat Woolley Monash
13.5 International academics and students
Anke Frank, biology student from Bonn University, Germany, completed a professional
practicum to assess reptile biodiversity inside and outside the large exclosed Emu pen.
Ulrike Kloecker, biology student from Bonn University, Germany, completed a professional
practicum to assess roadkill of kangaroos on the Silver City Highway through Fowlers Gap in
relation to traffic frequency, kangaroo density and roadside verge vegetation.
Professor Ian Hutcheon and Colleen McMechan from the University of Calgary visited the
station with a group from Geoscience Australia.
15
Professor Duncan Mitchell, Brain Function Research Unit, School of Physiology, University of
Witwatersrand.
Dr Dan Blumstein, Dr Peter Nonacs, Janice Daniel, Aviva Liebert from the Department of
Organismic Biology, Ecology and Evolution, UCLA
13.6 Government, Business and Other visitors
Terry Gewe Elders, Broken Hill
Dirk Jirste Geoscience Australia
Patrice DeCaritat Geoscience Australia
Steve Bottom Corner Country Tours
Dr Todd Soderquist Threatened Species Unit, NSW NPWS
Matthew Chambers Threatened Species Unit, NSW NPWS
Matt Cameron Threatened Species Unit, NSW NPWS
Paul Grose Broken Hill
Hugh Parlane HP Consultants P/L
Theo Allofs Photojournalist, Canada
Mike, Mary and Tim Jenkins Canberra
Dr Ingrid Witte NSW NPWS
Robin Graham Australian Plague Locust Commission
A. White Broken Hill
Laurie Cester Broken Hill
Marie Cester Broken Hill
Randy Graham Broken Hill
Tracy Laurenson Broken Hill
Patrick Blake Glebe
Don and Monica Keating Sydney
Neville Monaghen RTA
Ivan Blore RTA
Gary Remmert RTA
Paul McDonald RTA
Geoff Tweedie RTA
J Brown RTA
J McIntrye RTA
T Rimmert RTA
T Vale RTA
J Pearce RTA
M Davey RTA
D Gilby RTA
R Walden RTA
Kathryn Graham Broken Hill
Kym Isaacs Goanna Safaris Broken Hill
Sarah Crawford NSW Agriculture
Ken Turner President, West Darling Pastoralists Association
Peter and Mary Beven Sturts Meadows
Kym and Julie Smith Buckalow Station
Dr Lyndall Dawson Sydney
16
Steve McPhee Mildura
Pat Brown Pooginook Merino Stud
Emma Taylor Wanaaring
Liam DeFrancesci Broken Hill
Wayne Milne Broken Hill
Trevor Pritchard Broken Hill
Trevor Vincent Broken Hill
Andrew White Broken Hill
Ross Andrews Mt Gipps Station
Kym and Brendan Cullen Mt Westwood Station
Richard Anderson Wertago Station
17
14 APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Membership of Consultative Committee 2002
Dr D.B. Croft (Chair) School of BEES, UNSW 2052
Mr D.P. Adams Fowlers Gap Station, via Broken Hill 2880
Mr J. Bartholomaeus Pine Creek Station, via Cockburn 5440
Mr P.R. Beven Sturts Meadows Station, via Broken Hill 2880
A/Prof. J. Ongerth School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UNSW 2052
Emeritus Prof. T.J. Dawson School of BEES, UNSW 2052
Mr. A. Lacy Pine View Station, via Broken Hill 2880
Dr. G. Wise Western Lands Commission Dubbo 2830
Mr G. Woods NSW Agriculture, Broken Hill 2880
Mr S. Millington NPWS, Broken Hill 2880
Dr R. Hacker Trangie Centre of Excellence, Trangie 2823
Dr S. Mooney School of BEES, UNSW 2052
Mr J. Nesbit Glendara Station, via Broken Hill 2880
Mr M. O'Connor Nundooka Station, via Broken Hill 2880
Mr K.R. Smith Buckalow Station, PAWD Broken Hill 2880
Mr W. Tatnell Land and Water Conservation, Dubbo 2830
Dr. S. Morton Sustainable Ecosystems, CSIRO, Lyneham ACT 2602
Dr. I. Murphy College of Fine Arts, UNSW 2052
Mr K. Smith Milparinka Rural Lands Protection Board, Tibooburra 2880
Mr K. Turner West Darling Pastoralists Association, Broken Hill 2880
Appendix 2. Summary of monthly rainfall (mm) for 2002.
FOWLERS GAP RAINFALL 2002
J F M A M J J A S O N D TOTAL
Met Station 24.2 4.6 2.4 2.8 1.8 0.2 2.6 10.4 17.4 66.4
Bald Hills 8.4 6.4 4.8 3.4 4.6 6.4 16.4 50.4
Beadle 9.8 5.2 3 2.2 2.4 9.2 16.4 48.2
Frieslich Dam 17.2 5.2 2.2 2.6 2.6 12.4 19.2 61.4
Gap Creek 18.4 6.8 1.6 5.4 3.2 11 16.4 62.8
Gap Hills 7.6 3.8 2.8 1.4 4.8 5.8 14.2 40.4
Homestead Creek 21 2.4 2.2 2.2 10 16 53.8
Johnstones Dam 8 4.4 4.2 1.4 4.4 6.2 14 42.6
Mandleman Bore 12.6 5.6 3.8 2 3.4 7.2 11.6 46.2
Mating 15 4.2 2.8 2 2.8 10 20 56.8
Neila Dam 22 3.2 2.6 3 2.2 12.2 14 59.2
North Mandleman 13.6 4.6 4.4 4.8 5 6.4 10.6 49.4
Salt 3 16.8 4.2 4.4 3.2 5.2 8.2 13.4 55.4
Sandstone Bore 13.4 5 3.4 2 3.4 8.6 20.6 56.4
Sandstone Dam 9.2 4.6 2.6 3.2 3 9.4 17.6 49.6
South Sandstone 19.4 4.4 2.4 2.4 2 12.2 20.6 63.4
Strip 21 3.4 1.8 1.8 2.2 9.4 14.2 53.8
Warrens 15 4 2.6 4 2.6 10.6 20 58.8
18
Appendix 3. Monthly and annual rainfall (mm) at the Fowlers Gap Station
meteorological station, 1966-2002.
Year JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC TOTAL
1966 190.1
1967 2.8 25.6 1.3 0 15.4 33.1 0 0.8 0 13.3 4.4 3.6 100.3
1968 126 0 5.6 18.5 8.5 12.6 15.1 14.1 0 0 13.6 20.5 234.5
1969 13.6 9.3 34.9 4.6 5.4 38.2 16.7 1.6 70.4 7.4 0.8 11.8 214.7
1970 10.9 0.2 0 48.5 1 0.8 0 5.3 10.4 16.5 31.2 4.8 129.6
1971 0 44 142 8.7 7.3 3 33.5 20.1 20.1 2.5 32.2 5.3 318.7
1972 57.1 0 0 0.5 1.5 0.8 2.3 28.9 4.8 11.9 2 0 109.8
1973 14.2 45.7 9.2 24.4 9.9 39.9 14.5 60.9 6 50 16.7 104 395.4
1974 188 83.8 0 70.5 120 6.4 13.7 23.5 17.8 88.9 15.5 1.1 629.2
1975 11 48.6 2.8 1 0 12.2 5.6 13.6 65.7 51.5 0.8 96.6 309.4
1976 81 120 0.8 1 0 8.6 15.4 0 6.7 33.3 7.8 0.8 275.4
1977 6.6 4.3 0.4 0 13 1.4 1 0.8 9.7 4.5 19.3 2.5 63.5
1978 4.9 0 8.3 0.1 50 58.2 27.8 25.3 66.5 26.3 26.3 3.8 297.5
1979 64.5 36.4 0 14.3 65.3 9.4 1.2 27 35.1 13.7 8.4 0 275.3
1980 11.5 4.9 0 40.7 8.5 5.4 42.6 21 0 7 1.3 3.3 146.2
1981 11.4 1.8 9.1 2.6 77.1 14.8 58.7 3.4 21.5 9.2 16.4 4.4 230.4
1982 8.7 0.6 34.5 1.4 19 4.2 4.1 0 7.6 0 13.3 0.6 94
1983 4.6 7.1 34.2 21 24.2 4.5 10.6 29.3 3.8 22.7 25 36.5 223.5
1984 154 1.2 2.8 25.5 0 5 31.2 9.8 16.7 22.2 6.3 1.4 276.1
1985 3.8 7.3 4.3 0.4 22.6 15.3 0.7 55.7 1.6 14.9 54.3 13.7 194.6
1986 14.6 3 0 1 27 0.8 20.5 12.4 52.3 29.3 0 28.5 189.4
1987 12.5 133 47 0 13.8 64.8 1 62.5 9.9 8.8 9.4 45.7 408.4
1988 0 1.6 30.8 46.2 31.5 29.8 29.3 20.3 18.2 0 2.9 62.6 273.2
1989 2.5 0 132 9.3 131 11.1 16.5 5 0.5 18.5 7 6.3 339.7
1990 35 9.4 7 46.4 50.9 5.1 25.1 7.5 23 2.8 0 0.2 212.4
1991 32.5 0 1.8 3 22.6 18.9 17.9 8 4.3 0 20.6 4.5 134.1
1992 0 23.2 1.4 6 27.7 1.1 3.8 35.2 18.4 31.7 55 127 330.5
1993 101 4.6 3.8 0 25.4 0 59.8 4.8 34.2 44 11 90 378.6
1994 0 41.4 0 0 9.2 23.4 1 0.7 7.6 1.2 9.5 1 95
1995 44.8 1.8 2.6 0 16.6 29 9.4 0 13.6 33.4 43.8 66 261
1996 7 16.4 25.8 0 12.2 7.8 79.8 7.2 44.6 2.8 12 20.4 236
1997 67.8 56.8 0 0 46.6 3.2 0 9.2 32 10.6 36.6 12.6 275.4
1998 86 22 0 4.2 1.4 9 50.4 4 49 16.4 25.2 37.8 305.4
1999 11.6 11 18 6.8 14.4 8 13.6 18.4 29.8 59.2 48.2 239
2000 0.8 114.2 1.8 20.2 31.8 1.4 3.8 14 9.6 17 19 2.2 235.8
2001 2.6 35.4 18.2 0 3.4 37.6 13.4 2.6 16 38 2.8 5.8 175.8
2002 24.2 4.6 2.4 2.8 1.8 0.2 2.6 10.4 17.4 66.4
Average 33.8 25.5 16.2 12.1 25.2 15.2 18.1 15.2 20.0 19.4 17.2 24.7 241.0
36-year average = 241 mm
19
Appendix 4: Annual Increase of Sheep 1966-2002
YEAR EWES LAMBS MARKED
JOINED NUMBER PERCENTAGE
1966 2625 1211 46.10%
1967 2543 1798 70.70%
1968 2907 2269 78.10%
1969 2817 1882 66.80%
1970 2363 1669 70.60%
1971 3737 2290 61.30%
1972 3673 2420 65.90%
1973 3357 2116 63.00%
1974 2624 1974 75.20%
1975 2870 1996 69.50%
1976 3318 2242 67.60%
1977 3362 1609 47.90%
1978 2721 1251 46.00%
1979 3853 3262 84.70%
1979/80 2800 1693 60.50%
1980 3834 2738 71.40%
1981 3631 2584 71.20%
1982 3730 2179 58.40%
1983 2728 1784 65.40%
1984 2992 3519 117.60%
1985 2733 3066 112.20%
1986 2416 2289 94.70%
1987 2691 3231 120.10%
1988 3137 3821 121.80%
1991 2808 3675 130.90%
1992 2870 1607 56.00%
1993 2700 3086 114.30%
1994 2930 3259 111.20%
1995 3167 2730 86.20%
1996 2912 2864 98.40%
1997 2902 3099 106.80%
1998 2864 2460 85.80%
1999 2861 2146 75.00%
2000 2920 3310 113.35%
2001 2948 2251 76.35%
2002 3053 1584 51.88%
20
Appendix 5: Lambing summary for the Main Flock, by paddock for 2002 (Lamb
marking 13/8/02 – 11/9/02)
EWE EWE TOTAL EWE WETHER RAM %
PADDOCK AGE (y) NO LAMBS LAMBS LAMBS LAMBS
STH SANDSTONE 5 202 119 61 58 58.9
GAP CREEK 4 100 95 50 37 95.0
STH JOHNSTONE 3 137 87 50 37 63.5
GORGE 6 70 34 18 16 48.6
HOTEL 6 100 95 50 37 95.0
NTH JOHNSTONE 3 113 41 19 22 36.3
GAP HILLS 3 249 74 48 26 29.7
MANDLEMAN 2 84 35 14 21 41.7
NTH MANDLEMAN N1 mxd 283 207 106 81 20 73.1
SALT 1 2 79 22 16 6 27.9
SALT 2 2 98 28 12 16 28.6
SALT 3 2 82 31 14 17 37.8
SALT 4 2 77 22 16 6 28.6
SALT 5 2 66 29 11 18 44.0
SALT 6 2 71 29 19 10 40.9
LAMBING N2 mxd 104 58 26 1 31 55.8
WARRENS N2 mxd 100 64 37 3 24 64.0
NTH WARRENS N2 mxd 98 44 22 22 44.9
SALOON 2 118 40 26 14 33.9
BALD HILLS 5 DOH 282 124 69 55 44.0
W. MANDLEMAN 4, 5 173 87 45 42 50.3
TOTAL 3053 1584 839 640 97 51.9
21
15 Research Reports – 2002
Wildlife Tourism with Rangeland Kangaroos: Product development and
implementation
Investigators: David Croft
School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW Sydney
2052
The objectives of the project are:
1. to research product designs for access ways, viewing platforms, interpretative materials and
accommodation to create and support a high quality experience in wildlife tourism with
kangaroos
2. to test market the products to clientele derived from education groups (Study Abroad),
alumni and a local operator at Fowlers Gap and to trial some products with Sturt National
Park visitors,
3. to assess patterns of usage and visitor satisfaction with the products,
4. to assess and apply remedial action to any adverse impact on wildlife or habitat through the
tourism enterprise created around the products,
5. to create a model for wildlife tourism enterprises on public and 'private' lands in the
rangelands
6. to promote the products to stakeholders from the National Parks and Wildlife Service,
pastoral leaseholders, local and national tourism operators from the development site at
UNSW arid zone field station, Fowlers Gap.
The project has completed most of the milestones for the third and final year with a lag of around
a quarter for some activities as a consequence of delays in facility construction due to floods in
2000 and severe drought in 2002. Developments at Fowlers Gap have remained on schedule
except for the construction of a campground. A basic campground was due for completion in
December 2002 to service ‘campers’ attending the ‘Year of the Outback’ conference at Fowlers
Gap. However, severe drought through 2002 saw drying up of water at the site in mid-year
delaying any program to construct an ablutions block. Fowlers Gap staff were fully extended in
stock management (early shearing, culling of sheep flock for sale, feeding of breeding stock) and
water management (relocation of water sources, rotation of stock in paddocks) through the
second half of 2002. Thus construction of ablutions and campsites was held over until 2003 for
possible opening in mid year when large groups are booked into the Station.
A significant and expanding specialty market for Broken Hill and the surrounding region is art
tourism, especially artists seeking to produce works in Outback landscapes. We have continued
to develop opportunities for this on Fowlers Gap and elsewhere with Dr Idris Murphy from the
College of Fine Arts (UNSW), graduate colleagues in Broken Hill and New South Global at
UNSW. We will introduce an ‘artists-in-residence’ program in 2003 to stimulate knowledge
about the site. Thus part of the development of a strategy for tourism in the rangelands has been
nature-based ‘art’ tourism. Artists require studio space and so we have been planning options at
Fowlers Gap that could be applied more generally in the region. A major development proposal
has been put to UNSW for 2003 to develop a multi-purpose space for art and interpretation and
22
to embed this within a small botanic garden. A grant application for the latter will be made to the
Bushcare division of the Natural Heritage Trust in early 2003. The botanic garden has been
strongly endorsed by local graziers who see interpretation and knowledge about botanic resources
as essential to promoting understanding of sustainable land use in the pastoral context. The
Bushcare coordinator for the Far West region has indicated support for the proposal.
The Mt Wood complex at Sturt National Park comprises the historic homestead with major
elements built in the 1880s, early and mid-1900s; the stone shearer’s quarters; the shearing shed;
an outdoor pastoral museum and a bush campground. This complex is being used as a test site for
adaptive re-use of pastoral infrastructure for nature-based tourism with NSW National Parks and
Wildlife Service. The complex has been opened to guests through 2002 and continues to receive
funding through NPWS for restoration to meet OH&S standards. An exit survey of guests has
been developed and a usable sample will be gathered through 2003. An interpretive walkway
around the complex has been developed and will be opened shortly for the 2003 tourism season
(commences around Easter). A program of conservation volunteers has been developed and has
seen two French and six German students and several Australians through a typically 6-week
course in 2002. The volunteers have been involved in a project on the role of ephemeral creeks in
biodiversity conservation (pitfall trapping of small mammals, reptiles and ground invertebrates)
and have gathered information on raptor distribution in the Park as part of a monthly survey and
species lists for avifauna to assist in interpreting the fauna to guests. Computer facilities have
been upgraded to provide distributed access to the broadband satellite hub at the complex to
enable internet access to conservation volunteers and guests.
A presentation on ‘kangaroos in tourism’ was made at the Broken Hill development roundtable
in July 2002. The presentation was attended by Broken Hill tourism operators, councillors,
pastoralists and the interested public. A tourism strategy for the region as proposed in this project
was outlined and received significant support from operators and councillors. A presentation was
also made to an academic audience at the ‘Year of the Outback’ conference on ‘Animal function
in arid environments’ held at Fowlers Gap Dec 13-16, 2002. This group of around 50 delegates
exercised the infrastructure and services we have developed in this project and returned very
favourable comment. We received a report from Professor Duncan Mitchell of the University of
Witwatersrand in South Africa on the development of private nature conservancies including a
property he had inherited. An outcome of this meeting is a proposal to develop through a
fellowship at Fowlers Gap linkages with post-doctoral researchers in South Africa, Namibia
(especially the Desert Research Foundation of Namibia) and Botswana with interests in nature-
based tourism as a conservation mechanism in arid lands.
Publications:
Wilson, S., Scott, N. and Croft, D. (2002). Wild partnerships. Animals Today 10(3): 12-14.
23
Conservation of arid zone biodiversity in the sheep grazing piosphere
Investigators: David Croft
School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW Sydney
2052
This project was commenced in 2002 and addresses many of the deficiencies of past studies of
grazing intensity by stock in large rangeland paddocks by employing new GPS-tracking
technology. The technology provides 5-10 m accuracy with 8-16 fixes per day per annum. This
provides precise location of telemetered subjects across the diel cycle without disturbance by
observers, heavy labour investment in conventional tracking or attempts to integrate movement
patterns from dung deposition and measurement with attendant sampling biases. The project will
quantify the zone of attenuating grazing impact on plant communities by both continuous and
subsequent stratified sampling of the cover of functional plant groups, measurement of structure
and diversity of perennial species across landscape units in radial transects from the watering
points. The assessment of the fauna will be strategic with a focus on kangaroos that potentially
contribute to grazing effects, threatened small mammals that may suffer from them, bird
communities that are sensitive to variation in foliage height diversity, and insects, especially ants
and termites, that respond to small-scale disturbance. Sampling will be continuous (kangaroos,
birds) or stratified (small mammals and insects). Observations will be made in contiguous
paddocks of Mitchell grass and chenopod shrubland with either a central or peripheral watering
point.
The aims are:
• Define the usage by sheep of paddocks with different configurations of watering points using
precise GPS-tracking technology
• Define the zone of attenuating impact on vegetation (piosphere) from the watering point
along radial transects
• Determine the relationship between sheep grazing within a paddock and the piosphere
• Determine the effect of the piosphere on the distribution of kangaroos, small mammals of
conservation concern, the structure of bird communities, and predominantly social insect
diversity and abundance
• Assess the conservation benefit of water point configurations that encourage even or uneven
grazing.
The principal benefits of fulfilling these aims are:
• Accurate definition of the zone of grazing intensity around watering points by sheep to direct
further management for production in an ecologically sustainable framework
• Identification of any conservation benefits accruing from embedding lightly grazed zones in a
matrix of pastoral land use
• Determination if ‘reserved’ areas incur unintended costs through harbourage of pests (e.g.
invasive native species) or competitors (kangaroos, feral herbivores) as perceived (rightly or
wrongly) by pastoral land managers
24
Results from 2002 are atypical given the severity of the drought but did prove the GPS
technology with sheep. The study will be repeated under better rainfall conditions.
The role of functional muscle structure in our understanding of the
characteristics of hopping in kangaroos.
Investigators: Terry Dawson, Brock Mifsud and Matt Raad
School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW Sydney
2052
The energetic capacity of red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) has been studied in relation to the
work capabilities of their muscles. To understand the unusual characteristics of hopping (it is a
very cost effective mode of travel) we need to know where the work is actually being done
during locomotion. Our work has previously shown that kangaroos have a high energetic
capacity, i.e. are mammalian ‘athletes’ but we do not understand the mechanism by which
kangaroos increase the efficiency of hopping. From samples collected at Fowlers Gap, we
examined the distribution of muscle mass in red kangaroos and the volume of mitochondria in
those muscles. Mitochondria are the organelles fundamental to energy production in the body.
The combination of mitochondrial volume and muscle mass demonstrated that most (as would be
expected) work capacity was in the upper leg and hip region. Approximately 70% of the total
muscular capacity for work in the body was is this region. The surprise was in the work potential
of the muscles of the back and tail. We had considered these to be largely involved in elastic
recoil but the density of mitochondria in these regions was the highest in the body musculature.
We are continuing our studies into the mechanics of these regions.
Canopy interception losses in dryland shrubs: investigating a little-known
component of the water balance
Investigators: David Dunkerley
School of Geography and Environmental Science
Monash University Victoria 3800
In water-scarce environments such as those of the Australian arid and semi-arid zones, the fate of
rainwater is of heightened ecological significance (Dunkerley 2002; Dunkerley and Brown 2002).
The spatial distribution of water arriving at the soil surface also influences key processes
including the production of raindrop-impact seals and crusts at the soil surface (these are a
primary influence on soil water uptake rates), and the generation of surface runoff. Though foliar
cover is often less than 30%, the trapping of rainfall on leaves and branches has several
potentially important consequences. These include protection of the soil beneath the canopy from
all or part of the erosive energy of rain, which in the open is typically 0.1 – 0.4 W m-2. Partly as a
consequence of this, sand grains splashed from the surrounding unprotected soils that happen to
land beneath the canopy of a shrub are likely to remain sheltered there, and so slowly build up the
small mound that is often seen beneath saltbush and bluebush shrubs at Fowlers Gap. This light-
textured body of sediment is very porous and permeable to water, and this probably aids plants in
trapping water that drips though their canopy or that trickles down stem and branches.
25
However, the canopy also retains some water on wet leaves and branches. The amount that can
be held is termed the canopy storage capacity. Water held in this store is lost to the plant as the
foliage dries out following the cessation of rain. Thicker canopies better-protect the soil beneath
from splash, but also potentially cost the plant more in water lost to evaporation. A thicker
canopy can hold the entirety of the rain delivered in a small storm, only overflowing in larger
events. Because of this, days when water reaches the roots of a plant are only a subset of annual
rain days. Surprisingly little is known of this process of canopy interception loss in Australian
dryland plants.
A medium-term experiment established at Fowlers Gap in 2002 seeks to derive new measures of
canopy interception loss in two common varieties of small shrub, Maireana pyramidata and
Cassia eremophila. About 20 individuals of each species were equipped with a new kind of sub-
canopy device designed to provide multi-year data on the water falling through the canopy. At
nearby sites, tipping-bucket raingauges and a set of identical recording devices (but with no
canopy protection) were set out to provide calibration data. In essence, the devices employ a
small block of non-toxic, water-soluble material, whose initial weight is recorded. Blocks in the
open lose material in solution in all rain events, and thus slowly become lighter, while those
sheltered by canopies only lose weight when the canopy interception store overflows. The
devices in the open provide a calibration in mg mm-1 that can be used to interpret the weight loss
of the sub-canopy tablets in terms of the depth of water passing below the canopy. Given that
some water may fall through gaps in the canopy in storms of any size, in a process termed free
throughfall (Dunkerley 2000), up to five devices were installed beneath each shrub, with the
mean weight loss being used in subsequent analyses.
The method outlined is very cheap to apply. This was a design goal when its development was
undertaken, since the diversity of plant forms and ages means that in many ecosystems, many
individuals have to be monitored before a canopy loss figure for an ecosystem can be derived. It
also allows for some redundancy in the array of sensors. This means that the loss of a few devices
(perhaps caused by stock) can easily be tolerated. The devices use no power, and need simply to
be extracted, weighed, and re-inserted at any convenient opportunity (monthly, annually, etc).
This can be done at the shrub using a small battery-powered balance. Results to date (more being
needed owing to drought conditions!) show a very strong linear relation between weight loss and
rain reaching the sensors (see Dunkerley 2002(b)). During preliminary trials in Melbourne, the
devices have operated successfully through a total rainfall of > 250 mm, which is about two
average years at Fowlers Gap.
Publications:
Dunkerley DL 2000. Measuring interception loss and canopy storage capacity in dryland
vegetation: a brief review and evaluation of available research strategies. Hydrological
Processes 14: 669-678.
Dunkerley DL 2002(a). Infiltration rates and soil moisture in a groved mulga community near
Alice Springs, arid central Australia: evidence for complex internal rainwater
redistribution in a runoff-runon landscape. Journal of Arid Environments 51: 199-219.
26
Dunkerley DL 2002(b). Canopy interception losses in dryland plant communities: why are they
important, and how can we measure them? Paper delivered at Tenth Conference of the
Australian and New Zealand Geomorphology Group, Kalgoorlie WA, 30 September – 4
October 2002. Conference Abstracts page 17.
Dunkerley DL and Brown KJ 2002. Oblique vegetation banding in the Australian arid zone:
implications for theories of pattern evolution and maintenance. Journal of Arid
Environments 51: 163-181.
An evaluation of factors leading to kangaroo-vehicle collisions in the arid zone of
Australia
Investigators: Ulrike Kloecker1, David Croft2 and Daniel Ramp2
1
Rheinische Friedrichs-Wilhelm-University, Bonn (Germany)
2
School of Biological Science, UNSW Sydney NSW 2052
Kangaroo vehicle collisions are a frequent event on Australian highways. Despite high resulting
economic costs as well as animal welfare issues, little research has been done to investigate the
impact of road mortality on kangaroo populations, to find out where and why accidents occur and
how the collisions can be mitigated. During this 6-month study data on species, sex and age of
kangaroos killed on the road were collected on a 21.2 km section of sealed outback highway in
far western NSW. The spatial and temporal distribution of road-killed kangaroos were
investigated in relation to the cover and quality of road side vegetation, road characteristics,
density of kangaroos along the road and climatic variables.
A total of 125 kangaroos were found killed on the road. Grey Kangaroos were under represented
in the road kill sample as compared to their proportion in the source population. No bias towards
either sex was found. The age structure of road killed kangaroos was similar to age structures
found in other kangaroo populations. Road kills mainly occurred in plain open country. In road
sections with curves or stock races road kill frequencies were higher than expected. Road kill
locations had significantly higher pasture cover, relative greenness and height than locations
where no road kills occurred. Hence road side vegetation was another factor that potentially
influenced the spatial distribution of road kills. The road created an edge effect, as pasture cover
and relative greenness in the first meter interval on the road side were significantly higher than in
meter intervals further away. There was some evidence that road side vegetation attracted
kangaroos to the road to graze. The temporal distribution of road kills was highly correlated with
night time traffic. The probability of a kangaroo-vehicle collision increased exponentially with
traffic volume. With an average traffic volume of 53 vehicles per day the probability of a least
one road kill was 35 %. The results are discussed in relation to risk factors inducing road kill and
the potential to mitigate against them.
27
Energy requirements of juvenile red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) beyond pouch
exit: the cost of growth)
Investigators: Adam Munn and Terry Dawson
School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW, Sydney
NSW 2052
Using animals from Fowlers Gap Arid Zone Research Station we quantified the energy
requirements for maintenance and growth of juvenile red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) at two
ages: the young-at-foot (YAF) stage, when young had permanently left the mother’s pouch but
were still sucking, and shortly after they were weaned. When fed high-quality chopped lucerne
hay, YAF kangaroos (body mass 6.4 ± 0.2 kg) and weaned red kangaroos (body mass 10.9 ± 0.3
kg) had digestible energy intakes (kJ kg-0.75 d-1) of 641 ± 27 kJ and 677 ± 26 kJ kg-0.75 d-1,
respectively, significantly higher than the 385 ± 37 kJ kg-0.75 d-1 ingested by fully mature, non-
lactating females (body mass 25.8 ± 1.6 kg). On a good quality diet, juvenile red kangaroos aged
from permanent-pouch-exit until after weaning (ca. 220 – 400 d) had average growth rates of 55
g body mass d-1 and total daily energy requirements that were 1.7 – 1.8 times those of mature,
non-reproductive females. However, YAF and weaned red kangaroos had maintenance energy
requirements (i.e. energy intake needed to maintain a body mass change of zero) that were not
significantly higher than those of mature, non-lactating females, the values ranging between 384
and 390 kJ digestible energy kg-0.75 d-1. Therefore, the energetic cost of growth was the major
reason for the higher energy requirements of juveniles relative to non-lactating, mature females.
Importantly, the MER of mature female red kangaroos was 84% of that previously reported for
similarly sized, but still growing, male red kangaroos and our results are important for assessing
the competitive grazing impacts of red kangaroos, both intra- and inter-specifically, in Australia’s
arid rangelands.
Year of the Outback Conference: Animal Function in Arid Environments
Reporter: Terry Dawson
School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW, Sydney NSW
2052
A highly successful and enjoyable regional meeting of the Australian Mammal Society was held
in conjunction with Fowlers Gap Arid Zone Research Station. The meeting was held over three
days in early December, a time when the impact of the drought was still very evident.
Approximately 50 researchers, including two international visitors and representatives from all
states attended; 17 graduate students made vigorous contributions. The conference broadly
examined the environmental physiology of animals in the arid zone. The main focus was “How
are animals able to make a living in such an extreme and unpredictable environment?” Several
keynote speakers reviewed major topic areas. It is anticipated that the proceedings of the
conference will be published in Australian Mammalogy, the journal of the Australian Mammal
Society. The conference attracted considerable media attention with articles by James Woodford
appearing in The Sydney Morning Herald. Stories that attracted special attention concerned the
great increase in camel numbers in arid Australia and the unusual biology of emus.
28
The abstracts for the majority of papers follow.
GONADAL AND ENDOCRINE CORRELATES OF BREEDING FLEXIBILITY IN
ARID-ZONE WHITE-PLUMED HONEYEATERS
Lee B. Astheimer and William A. Buttemer
Institute for Conservation Biology
Depts. of Biomedical and Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong
leebu@uow.edu.au
In the Australian arid zone, conditions conducive to breeding vary spatially and temporally. Because of this
unpredictability, birds residing in the arid zone would benefit by having the ability to link breeding readiness to
proximate cues rather than to those representing long-term average conditions, such as photoperiod. The White-
plumed Honeyeater Lichenostomus penicillatus, is a widely distributed resident in Australian riparian habitats that is
known to breed throughout the year across much of its extensive range. Our studies of populations near Fowlers Gap
demonstrate the absence of testicular regression in adult males. Repeated laparotomies on individuals show that,
although small changes in testis size occur, these do not follow a seasonal pattern. Plasma testosterone levels in
males are typically low (<1.0 ng/ml), with a very damped annual cycle. To determine whether males undergo
seasonal changes in the sensitivity of the downstream targets to GnRH-I, we challenged free-living male honeyeaters
with intrajugluar injections of chicken-GNRH or saline (control) at 5 times during a year. Blood samples were
collected after the dose to assess plasma levels of luteinizing hormone (LH, at 5 min) and testosterone (T, at 15 min).
Blood samples for background LH and T levels were also collected from untreated males immediately after capture
during each of the sampling periods. Males challenged with cGNRH-I had higher plasma LH levels compared with
both the Saline and Background groups at all sampling times, but there were no differences between months. The
results of this experiment taken with field measures of hormone levels and testes size support the contention that
these, and possibly other Australian passerines, support their flexible breeding strategy through year-round activity
of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.
ENERGETIC CONSIDERATIONS OF MOULT/BREEDING OVERLAP IN ARID-
ZONE BIRDS
William A. Buttemer and Lee B. Astheimer
Institute for Conservation Biology
Depts. of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, University of Wollongong
buttrmer@uow.edu.au
Feathers are essential for many vital functions of birds and must be renewed annually. The moult process places an
energetic and nutritional burden on birds, consequently most species restrict moult to times when thermoregulatory
costs are minimal and when breeding has been completed. In fact, species living in highly seasonal environments
have endocrine feedback mechanisms that prevent overlap of moult and breeding activities. For species living in
habitats with unpredictable resource abundance, moult remains highly scheduled, but breeding may occur whenever
resources are sufficient, often resulting in moult/breeding overlap. This raises several questions: 1) do species
exhibiting moult/breeding overlap differ from species showing moult/breeding segregation in terms of energy costs
of these activities, 2) if not, do they suffer greater stress during overlap of these activities, and 3) do they differ in
sensitivity to hormonal signalling? Our studies of White-plumed Honeyeaters reveal no difference between the basal
metabolic rates of White-plumed Honeyeaters and those of seasonal breeders, but the honeyeater clutch sizes are
significantly smaller. Based on studies of another sedentary species, we believe the moult costs of White-plumed
Honeyeaters are less costly than measured in migratory, seasonal breeders. Consistent with this possibility, there was
no difference in stress responsivity (pattern of glucocorticoid secretion under stress) or blood parasite load in non-
breeding, non-moulting birds compared to those breeding while moulting. Finally, moult rate was far less sensitive to
testosterone in male White-plumed Honeyeaters than in males of seasonally breeding species.
29
FORAGING BEHAVIOUR OF RED KANGAROOS – FROM PATCH TO LANDSCAPE.
David Croft, Ingrid Witte and Sally Truong
University of NSW
School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW Sydney NSW 2052
d.croft@unsw.edu.au
Red kangaroo populations may grow on the ‘ephemeral bounty’ of grasses and forbs but survive on mainly perennial
grasses in run-on patches. We explore, through a controlled experiment in captivity, the foraging behaviour of small
through large size classes when presented with grass swards of different heights. We examine how red kangaroos
meet the challenges of increased vertical complexity of forage and reduced visual acuity at night. We describe their
responses to and effects on foraging resources in small 0.4 ha plots in the field. Finally we compare usage of
landscape units in habitat descending from foot-slopes to flood-out plains. The results are discussed in relation to
whether sheep grazing has created ‘marsupial lawns’ favouring an increased abundance of large kangaroos.
ARE RED KANGAROOS THE KINGS OF THE OUTBACK? WHAT ABOUT THE BIG
BIRD, THE EMU
Terry Dawson
University of NSW
School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW Sydney NSW 2052
t.dawson@unsw.edu.au
Over many years our group at UNSW have shown that red kangaroos are superior mammals when it comes to living
in harsh arid environments. Their capabilities are equal to or superior to those of most large, arid adapted mammals
found through the world. They have excellent water conservation mechanisms, especially urine concentrating
abilities. They can withstand extremely high environmental temperatures. Additionally, they can extract sufficient
energy and nitrogen from poor quality fibrous vegetation. Because of our mammal centred viewpoint we often
overlook the abilities of birds and, in this case the emu. The emu has very different physiological characteristics
(probably dinosaur derived) to those of mammals. For example, they only concentrate their urine to a fraction of that
of the red kangaroos, yet their water1osses are not much different from those of the kangaroos. Overall, the emu does
things in a very different way to the kangaroos but it is the emu that is able to wander around foraging during the
hottest part of summer days in the arid zone. The kangaroos on the other hand are restricted to the shade of trees and
bushes in these circumstances. So then who are the kings of the outback?
RESOURCE TRACKING AND EXPLOITATION IN AUSTRALIAN DESERT
RODENTS: A REVIEW.
Chris R Dickman, Chin-Liang Beh, Silvia Ricci and Bobby Tamayo
Institute of Wildlife Research, University of Sydney, NSW 2006
cdickman@bio.usyd.edu.au
Food and water resources are commonly limiting in desert environments but for rodents in arid Australia the high
spatial and temporal variability in resource availability presents an additional challenge. Free water often becomes
available only after local or regional rainfall, while pulses of food often follow 1-6 months later. In this review, we
firstly describe the ability of Australian desert rodents to track and exploit ephemeral resources. We then compare
the responses of Australian rodents with those of rodents from other world deserts, and show that they differ in at
least six major ways. Thus, in comparison with their counterparts elsewhere, Australian desert rodents:
1) are more mobile, more likely to occupy shifting home ranges and to move long distances (>10km) to
obtain resources;
2) are primarily omnivorous rather than granivorous, herbivorous or insectivorous;
30
3) do not appear to show strong preferences for particular types of food within major food groups (e.g.
different species of seeds, types or sizes of invertebrates);
4) very seldom cache food and do not construct food stores;
5) are able to reproduce at any time of year when resources are available; and
6) appear poorly attuned while foraging to risk of predation from either terrestrial or volant predators.
These differences can be interpreted as selective responses by rodents in arid Australia to an environment where the
supply of food is temporally and spatially uncertain, in contrast to the seasonally more predictable environments that
prevail in arid regions elsewhere.
HOW MANY FERAL CAMELS ARE THERE?
Glenn Edwards, Keith Saalfeld and Bretan Clifford
Parks and Wildlife Service (Dept of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment), PO Box 2130, Alice Springs, NT
0871
glen.edwards@nt.gov.au
Between August and October 2001 we conducted a broadscale aerial survey to ascertain the abundance of feral
camels in the southern third of the Northern Territory (NT). The survey indicated that there were a minimum of
52,329+4,760 (SE) feral camels at an average density of 0.20+0.02 camels/sq.km. Assuming that only one in four
camels were seen, the actual population was probably about 209,316+19,040 camels (0.81+0.08 camels/sq.km). The
highest densities of camels were recorded in the south-western part of the area surveyed. The feral camel population
in the NT increased by about 210% between 1993 and 2001, a rate of increase of about 10% per annum. On the basis
of early survey work which showed that the Northern Territory supported about 27% of Australia’s camels, the
national population may be as high as 775,000 animals. In the absence of management intervention, the rate of
growth of the camel population is unlikely to diminish in the foreseeable future. The environmental impacts of
camels and options for their management will be discussed.
THE ROLE OF TORPOR IN ARID ZONE MAMMALS
Fritz Geiser
Zoology BBMS, University of New England, Armidale NSW 2351
fgeiser@metz.une.edu.au
Approximately half of the Australian continent is arid, receives less than 300mm of rain/year, and is characterised by low
primary production, limited supply of food and high daily fluctuations of ambient temperature (Ta). Despite these adverse
conditions the diversity of small mammals in the Australian arid zone is high, although their abundance is generally low.
The most successful groups of small arid zone mammals are the dasyurid marsupials (~47% of all Australian species),
native rodents (~37%), and insectivorous bats (~22%). A probable reason for the success of the insectivorous dasyurids and
bats, which must cope with strong fluctuations in food availability, is their extensive use of torpor for energy and water
conservation. Torpor is characterised by substantial reductions of body temperature (Tb) and metabolic rate (MR), but also
water loss and other physiological processes. Arid zone dasyurids like dunnarts (Sminthopsis spp.), planigales (Planigale
spp.), fat-tailed antechinus (Pseudantechinus macdonnellensis) and mulgaras (Dasycercus cristicauda) use daily torpor
extensively, some even during the reproductive season when most mammals maintain strict homeothermy. Dasyurids reduce
Tb from about 35 ºC during normothermia to about 15 ºC during torpor and MR to about 30% of basal MR; mass loss, and
thus water loss, is related to the duration of torpor bouts. Dasyurids usually commence torpor at night or in the early
morning and arouse around midday or in the afternoon. Recent evidence shows that desert dasyurids bask in the sun during
rewarming from torpor and thereby can minimise energetic cost of arousal to a fraction of that required for active arousal.
Arid zone bats are also likely to use torpor extensively, but few species specifically from the arid zone have been studied.
Nevertheless, species with a wide distribution range including arid areas like long-eared bats, Nyctophilus geoffroyi, enter
brief torpor for part of the day in summer and prolonged torpor for up to 2 weeks in winter. Torpid Nyctophilus spp. and
broad-nosed bats, Scotorepens balstoni, can reduce Tb to a minimum of 2-3 ºC and MR to 2% of basal MR; mass loss, and
consequently water loss, are minimal during torpor. In contrast to dasyurids and bats, no reliable information is available on
31
torpor in native Australian rodents, perhaps because little work with respect to torpor has been conducted in Australia.
Daily torpor in small rodents is common on other continents and it is possible that Australian rodents also use it, although
they are mainly granivorous. Thus, it appears that the success of small insectivorous mammals in the Australian arid zone is
partially due to their use of torpor, which allows them to survive and reproduce despite limited food and water supply.
CYCLIC GMP SYSTEMS IN BODY FLUID REGULATION OF NOTOMYS ALEXIS
Rachel Heimeier, Ray Bartolo and John Donald
School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3217
heimeier@deakin.edu.au
The Spinifex Hopping-mouse, Notomys alexis, is a desert rodent that inhabits central and western Australia.
Notomys has adapted a suite of behavioural and physiological mechanisms that enable them to survive in arid
environments when water is limited. One critical adaptation is their ability to produce highly concentrated urine
(measured as high as 9400 mOsM; the highest recorded among mammals). In Notomys, the loop of Henle in the
kidney descends deep into the medulla, thereby increasing the medullary concentration gradient. In addition, the
colon of Notomys has a greater absorptive area than that of non-desert rodents that allows increased reabsorption of
water, thereby facilitating the production of small quantities of very dry faeces.
In mammals, the natriuretic and guanylin peptides regulate renal and intestinal fluid and electrolyte transport by
binding to and activating guanylyl cyclase (GC) receptors to stimulate production of the intracellular second
messenger guanosine 3’:5’-cyclic monophospate (cGMP). Increases in production of cGMP in the kidney and
intestine leads to the excretion of water and salt. However, the role of the natriuretic and guanylin peptides in fluid
homeostasis in desert species is yet to be clarified. Under laboratory conditions, Notomys can survive for extended
periods without access to free water whilst maintaining plasma volume and osmolarity. Because signalling
molecules that generate cGMP promote the excretion of water, it was hypothesised that natriuretic and guanylin
peptide synthesis would be down regulated in water-deprived Notomys to reduce the loss of water in the urine and
faeces. The aim of this study was to investigate the mRNA expression of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), C-type
natriuretic peptide (CNP), guanylin, uroguanylin and the GC receptors (type A, B and C) in the kidney, and proximal
and distal colon of Notomys during a period of water deprivation.
Using a semi-quantitative multiplex PCR technique, the expression of the natriuretic and guanylin peptides and the
GC receptor mRNAs were determined in the kidney, while guanylin peptides and GC-C mRNA expression were also
determined in the proximal and distal colon of control (access to water) and water-deprived (7 days) Notomys. In the
kidney, ANP and GC-A mRNA levels were increased in water-deprived mice, while CNP and GC-B mRNA levels
were decreased. Water deprivation increased guanylin and uroguanylin mRNA expression in the distal colon, but
remained unchanged in the kidney and proximal colon. The expression of GC-C mRNA increased in the proximal
colon but not the distal colon. This study shows that water deprivation differentially affects the cGMP system, and
that system is not uniformly down-regulated to conserve water.
DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSES BY SYMPATRIC MACROPOD TAXA TO
SEVERE DROUGHT.
Peter Hornsby
Nent Oura Research Unit, University of Adelaide, SA 5005
peter.hornsby@psychology.adelaide.edu.au
The responses to severe drought by yellow-footed rock-wallabies Petrogale xanthopus and euros or
common wallaroos Macropus robustus have been compared. The wallaby population remains fairly
static, with deaths mainly from juveniles, while euros die in significant numbers, especially the larger
[and presumably older] animals. Nearly 30% of those dying are large males. It is hypothesised that the
smaller females are better able to survive severe drought thus providing the necessary residual breeding
base for when conditions improve.
32
METABOLISM: INSIGHT FROM ARID ZONE REPTILES
A.J. Hulbert1 & Paul Lewis Else2
Metabolic Research Centre,
Departments of Biological1 & Biomedical2 Science
University of Wollongong, NSW 2522
hulbert@uow.edu.au
The metabolic rate of animals varies both with body size and whether it is an endotherm or ectotherm. Considerable
insight into metabolism has come from the comparative study of arid zone reptiles with mammals. These reptiles
have the same preferred body temperature as mammals (i.e ~37oC) but have a metabolic rate that is ~14% of that of
a similar sized mammal. The reptiles we have studied are (i) the central-netted dragon Amphibolurus nuchalis, (ii)
the bearded dragon Pogona vitticeps and (iii) shingle-back Trachydosaurus rugosus. These reptiles have smaller
organs/tissues and less mitochondria (the site of oxygen consumption in cells) than do mammals. Their cell
membranes are less leakier to ions than are mammalian cells and therefore they expend less energy in maintaining
their intracellular environment. Their mitochondrial membranes are also less leaky to protons than are the
mitochondrial membranes of mammals. The membranes of these reptiles tend to contain monounsaturated lipids
whilst those from mammals have lipids that are predominantly polyunsaturated. These differences in membrane lipid
composition are related to the differences in membrane functional properties. These findings from arid-zone reptiles
have been instrumental in the development of the "membrane pacemaker" theory of metabolism. This approach has
recently been used to examine the long-known but little understood relationship between metabolic rate and body
size in mammals with considerable success.
SPERM PRODUCTION IN THE MALE ECHIDNA: IS IT ADAPTED FOR LIFE IN AN
ARID ENVIRONMENT?
R C Jones, D Djakiew and J-L Dacheux
Discipline of Biological Sciences, University of Newcastle, NSW 2308
russell.jones@newcastle.edu.au
The Short-beaked echidna survives well in an arid environment so that it is pertinent to question whether sperm
production is adapted to cope with this environment. We have shown that sperm production in echidna exhibits unique
mammalian characteristics. These include the kinetics and duration of a cycle of the seminiferous epithelium (13.8 d for
the echidna), the location of the acrosome and presence of a cytoplasmic droplet on spermatozoa, and the duration of
sperm transport through the epididymis (14 d). Also, the epididymis is differentiated into distinct segments, the proximal
region being structurally and functionally similar to the “initial segment” that is unique to the mammalian epididymis.
Nevertheless, the male reproductive tract of monotremes is generally considered to be in the primitive condition for
mammals with the testes being located intra-abdominally between the kidneys and the excurrent ducts also being located
intra-abdominally. The condition contrasts with that of scrotal mammals and even other testicond mammals. The latter
all exhibit varying degrees of development of a sperm storage region of the epididymis displaced from the testis towards
the body surface. Consequently, it is considered that the echidna epididymis exhibits no characteristics that can be
considered as an adaptation to cope with an arid environment. However, echidna are adapted to improve the competition
between males to achieve paternity (sperm competition). They have relatively large testes for their body size, and sperm
form into bundles of 20-30 sperm as they pass through the epididymis. This bundle formation is unique among
mammals. The sperm are bound together by specific proteins secreted by the cauda epididymidis and several bundles
associate with one another to enhance forward movement. The bundles persist for more than an hour after sperm are
released into physiological media, but eventually sperm dissociate.
33
THERMOREGULATION AND TORPOR IN THE TAWNY FROGMOUTH (PODARGUS
STRIGOIDES)
Gerhard Körtner and Fritz Geiser
Zoology, University of New England, Armidale NSW 2351
fgeiser@metz.une.edu.au
Many small mammals are able to avoid the high energetic costs associated with thermoregulation by entering torpor, a
physiological state characterised by a substantial reduction of body temperature (Tb) and metabolic rate. However, only a
few small birds (<80 g) were known to possess this ability and it widely assumed that birds evade energetic bottlenecks
chiefly by long distant migration. Nevertheless, not all bird species are migratory and those eating insects or nectar are likely
to be subjected to temporary food shortage. Since the large tawny frogmouth, Podargus strigoides (Podargidae:
Caprimuligiformes; ~500 g) is sedentary and preys mainly on ground active invertebrates, we investigated whether this
species employs torpor. The study was conducted on the New England Tablelands at an altitude of about 1000m, but
frogmouths are widely distributed including the arid areas of Australia. During 1997 and 1999 we equipped a total of eight
free-ranging frogmouths with external temperature-sensitive radio-transmitters attached to a harness (long range) to measure
skin temperature (Tskin). In addition, core Tb was measured in three of these birds with an intraperitoneal transmitter (short
range). Tskin was closely correlated with Tb, although Tskin was usually several degrees lower than Tb. Transmitter signals and
ambient temperature (Ta) were continuously recorded by data loggers (up to 9 months) and roost locations were determined
daily in the early morning. During the three coldest months of the year (June-August), shallow torpor with Tb as low as
29.1°C occurred frequently, but torpor was not observed during spring and summer. Torpor occurred mainly during the night
and less frequently in the morning. Frogmouth entered night torpor on cold nights (Ta<7°C) after a short activity period
around dusk. Night torpor lasted on average for about 7 h and birds always aroused before sunrise to either commence a
second short foraging period or to fly directly to a day roost tree. Frogmouths occasionally entered a second shorter torpor
bout at dawn. As frogmouth selected north-facing branches as day roosts, passive heating by the sun might have caused or
contributed to arousal from dawn torpor. We conclude that even some large birds use torpor when detrimental weather
conditions would increase thermoregulatory costs and reduce food availability, a situation that is likely to occur also in arid
zones inhabited by tawny frogmouths.
MITOCHONDRIA AND MUSCLES DURING COLD ACCLIMATION IN SMINTHOPSIS
CRASSICAUDATA.
Enhua Lee and Terry Dawson
University of NSW
School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW Sydney NSW 2052
enhualee@hotmail.com
The effects of cold acclimation on the mitochondrial characteristics in muscles, as well as on the mass of organs and
muscles, were examined in the fat-tailed dunnart, Sminthopsis crassicaudata. The heart was the only muscle in which
changes in mass and mitochondrial characteristics were observed between warm and cold acclimated S.
crassicaudata. In the cold acclimated (CA) S. crassicaudata, hearts were 13.5% heavier; 14.2% greater in
mitochondrial volume density, Vv(mt,f); 26.6% greater in total mitochondrial volume, Vv(mt,m); and 17.3% greater
in inner mitochondrial surface density compared to warm animals. In CA dunnarts, the mean percentage mass of the
liver increased by 16% compared to warm acclimated (WA) dunnarts. In addition, the digestive tract of CA S.
crassicaudata was 37% heavier than those of WA animals. At least part of this difference was due to the 13%
difference in mean gut length between the two groups. These results suggest that CA dunnarts have higher basal
metabolic rates compared to WA dunnarts, and that the skeletal muscles are not sites of increased heat production by
either shivering or regulatory non-shivering thermogenesis (regulatory NST). Although it is conceivable that
regulatory NST occurred in sites other than in the skeletal muscles for the maintenance of body temperatures in the
CA animals, this appears unlikely since skeletal muscles are already the largest organ group in the body that could
possibly facilitate regulatory NST. Since dunnarts have high metabolic capacities, the maintenance of body
temperatures in the CA animals may have been due to shivering alone, without increases in either mitochondria or in
the surface densities of the mitochondrial cristae.
34
FACTORS AFFECTING ROADKILL ON THE SILVER CITY HIGHWAY IN FAR
WESTERN NSW
Ulrike Klöcker1,2, D.B. Croft1 and D. Ramp1
1
University of NSW
School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, UNSW Sydney NSW 2052
2
University of Bonn
Ulrike.Kloecker@gmx.de
Kangaroo vehicle collisions are a frequent event on Australian highways. Despite high resulting economic costs as
well as animal welfare issues, little research has been done to investigate the impact of road mortality on kangaroo
populations, to find out where and why accidents occur and how the collisions can be mitigated. During this 6-month
study data on species, sex and age of kangaroos killed on the road were collected on a 21.2 km section of sealed
outback highway in far western NSW. The spatial and temporal distribution of road-killed kangaroos were
investigated in relation to the cover and quality of road side vegetation, road characteristics, density of kangaroos
along the road and climatic variables.
A total of 125 kangaroos were found killed on the road. Grey Kangaroos were under represented in the road kill
sample as compared to their proportion in the source population. No bias towards either sex was found. The age
structure of road killed kangaroos was similar to age structures found in other kangaroo populations. Road kills
mainly occurred in plain open country. In road sections with curves or stock races road kill frequencies were higher
than expected. Road kill locations had significantly higher pasture cover, relative greenness and height than locations
where no road kills occurred. Hence road side vegetation was another factor that potentially influenced the spatial
distribution of road kills. The road created an edge effect, as pasture cover and relative greenness in the first meter
interval on the road side were significantly higher than in meter intervals further away. There was some evidence that
road side vegetation attracted kangaroos to the road to graze. The temporal distribution of road kills was highly
correlated with night time traffic. The probability of a kangaroo-vehicle collision increased exponentially with traffic
volume. With an average traffic volume of 53 vehicles per day the probability of a least one road kill was 35 %. The
results are discussed in relation to risk factors inducing road kill and the potential to mitigate against them.
FOOD AND WATER REQUIREMENTS OF THE BRIDLED NAILTAIL WALLABY
Narelle McCallum1,2, David Mulligan1, Hamish McCallum2 and Tony Pople2
Centre for Mined Land Rehabilitation1 and The Department of Zoology and Entomology2, The University of
Queensland
n.mccallum@cmlr.uq.edu.au
Once considered to be common, the endangered bridled nailtail wallaby (Onychogalea fraenata) currently occupies
less than 5% of its former range. The only known wild population occurs on and around Taunton National Park
(Scientific) in central Queensland. Recent monitoring suggests a population size of <1,000. In the mid 1990s, in
accordance with the species’ Recovery Plan, the Queensland Government translocated a population of free-ranging
bridled nailtail wallabies to Idalia National Park – a location on the extreme western limit of the species historical
distribution.
Suitable and sufficient forage is an element of significant importance affecting the persistence of fauna populations
within habitats. A primary objective of this project is to determine whether adequate forage and water resources are
available at both Taunton NP and Idalia NP to support an increasing abundance of bridled nailtail wallabies. To
achieve this, a detailed examination of their diet, an evaluation of forage availability and quality, and an assessment
of their water requirements will be undertaken.
To determine the plant species consumed, microhistological analysis of faecal pellets will be used. This technique
relies on identifying epidermal fragments of plant species in faecal pellets and comparing them against a reference
collection of the epidermal structures of plants available for consumption. In conjunction with this, botanical species
35
diversity and yield will be measured within occupied habitats, and the moisture, energy and nutritional value of
dominating forage species determined.
Water requirements will be measured by means of isotopically labelled water. The washout rate of injected tritiated
water will be used to determine the amount of water they process through their bodies each day. Animals which are
less dependant on water display lower water flux rates. This can be indicative of adaptations – both physiological
and behavioural – specific to mechanisms associated with water conservation that enable species to persist in arid
environments.
Accordingly, this project will provide greater understanding of the extent to which the bridled nailtail wallaby is
arid-adapted, and will offer some insight into their ability to persist in a semi-arid environment, such as Idalia
National Park.
CAROTID BLOOD AND BRAIN TEMPERATURES OF FREE RANGING WESTERN
GREY KANGAROOS (MACROPUS FULIGINOSUS)
Shane K. Maloney1, Andrea Fuller2, Peter R Kamerman2, Graham Mitchell3, and Duncan Mitchell2
1
Physiology, School of Biomedical and Chemical Science, University of Western Australia, Crawley 6009, Australia,
2
School of Physiology, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown 2193, South Africa, 3Department of
Physiology, University of Bristol, UK.
shanem@cyllene.uwa.edu.au
Using implanted temperature loggers we measured temperature in the carotid artery in five (4 male, 1 female)
western grey kangaroos every five minutes for between 39 and 74 days while the animals lived undisturbed at the
Harry Waring Marsupial Reserve south of Perth.
Dry bulb temperature during the study ranged from an average minimum of (mean ± SD) 11 ± 3°C to maximum of
24 ± 5°C. There were two days where maximum dry bulb temperature exceeded 35°C and a further 12 where it
exceeded 30°C. Black globe temperature measured in the southern shade of a grass tree, ranged from an average
minimum of 10 ± 4°C to an average maximum of 30 ± 6°C. There were 9 days where maximum shade globe
temperature exceeded 40°C.
The animals were febrile for about 10 days following surgery but temperature rhythms thereafter became regular.
Data analysis was performed only on data collected after the febrile period.
Carotid blood temperature averaged 36.5 ± 0.1°C (n = 5) ranging from an average minimum of 35.5 ± 0.3°C to a
maximum of 37.3 ± 0.1°C, giving an average daily range of 1.8 ± 0.3°C. Body temperature was highest during the
night and dropped rapidly early in the morning, reaching a nadir at 10:00, after ambient temperature and solar
radiation had begun increasing. Body temperature then rose gradually during the day to reach a peak in the early
evening. The nychthemeral variation in carotid blood temperature was independent of ambient conditions. Changes
in dry bulb or globe temperature did not explain any of the small variation in mean, minimum, maximum, or range of
body temperature. It has been suggested previously that the rapid decrease in body temperature in the morning is
influenced by solar radiation causing a blood flow redistribution. We found no association between early morning
radiation levels and the minimum body temperature reached.
In three of the animals we also measured brain temperature in the hypothalamus, coincident with carotid blood
temperature, for between 3 and 63 days. On average brain temperature paralleled and exceeded carotid blood
temperature by 0.12 ± 0.05, 0.38 ± 0.08, and 0.41 ± 0.08C for the three animals. In each animal there were some
data points where brain temperature was lower than carotid blood temperature. These times were always associated
with rapid increases in body temperatures and we ascribe these data to a longer time constant for the brain probe than
for the blood probe. Separate analysis of data when body temperature was increasing and when it was decreasing
supports that conclusion. Thus there was no evidence of selective brain cooling in these large macropods.
36
THE ECOPHYSIOLOGY OF JUVENILE SURVIVAL IN THE RED KANGAROO.
Adam Munn and Terry Dawson
School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Science
University of New South Wales, Sydney NSW 2052
a.munn@unsw.edu.au
The population dynamics of red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) in the Australian arid zone is tightly linked with
environmental factors, which partly operate via the survival of juvenile animals. A crucial stage is the young-at-foot
(YAF) stage when kangaroos permanently exit the mother’s pouch. Here, I present an overview of the major
physiological differences between YAF and non-reproductive adult female red kangaroos and consider how these
relate to survivorship. Under thermoneutral conditions (ambient temperature [Ta] = 25°C), YAF had daily energy
requirements (watts) that were some 60% of those by adult females, and as much as 70% under cold conditions (Ta =
-5°C). Also, despite being 3 - 4 times smaller, YAF red kangaroos had total evaporative water losses (watts) that
were not significantly different from those of adult females. The small body size of the YAF red kangaroos, ca. 6 kg,
also affected their ability to digest poor-quality, high-fibre forage (ie chopped oaten hay). Adult female red
kangaroos, with a body mass of ca. 26 kg, were able to digest ca. 45% of the organic matter (OM) from chopped
oaten hay. However, when fed chopped oaten hay YAF digested only ca. 36% OM and were unable to sustain body
mass or growth. Also, when switching from a low-fibre, high-quality diet of chopped lucerne hay to the fibrous oaten
hay, YAF showed significant reductions in daily OM intake (OMI) and digestible energy intake (DEI), by around
70% in each case. Conversely, adult female red kangaroos were able to maintain OMIs and DEIs when switching
from chopped lucerne to oaten hays. Moreover, for YAF red kangaroos fed chopped oaten hay to attain energy
intakes equivalent to those fed lucerne, an intake of 300 mL d-1 of late stage red kangaroo milk would be required;
this level being highly unlikely given red kangaroo mothers would also face feed and water restrictions during
drought.
ECOPHYSIOLOGY OF A SYMPATRIC RODENT AND DASYURID IN A SEMI-ARID
ENVIRONMENT.
David Paull
School of Human, Animal and Biological Sciences.
University of New England, Armidale NSW
dunnarts@hwy.com.au
Behavioural and physiological adaptions of sympatric Sminthopsis murina and Pseudomys pilligaensis were studied
using radio-telemetry in Pilliga East State Forest during autumn and winter, 1999. Body temperatures, activity
patterns, burrow structure and temperatures, nesting and burrowing behaviours were investigated. Both species were
found to rest during the day in burrows, using a preferred burrow type, with S. murina also found in logs and old P.
pilligaensis burrows. Most P. pilligaensis burrows were more complex, consisting of tunnels dug into flat ground
with entrance holes at both ends and a larger nesting chamber in the deepest part of the tunnel. These chambers were
filled with nesting material and huddling behaviour was also observed. S. murina burrows were simple tunnels dug
into slopes on mounds, with one entrance and a wider terminal nesting area; no nesting material was identified and
dunnarts appeared to nest solitary. P. pilligaensis burrows were a little deeper and longer than S. murina burrows,
up to 22 cm deep and 60 cm long and tended to have a north-south orientation. Burrows at this depth were found to
be very humid, with a high soil moisture keeping evaporative water loss to a minimum. All burrow temperatures
varied only 2-3º C for any 24-hour period; the shallower S. murina burrows (10.3º-15.8º C) were cooler than P.
pilligaensis burrows (15.4º-19.3º C). Ambient surface temperatures varied between 3.5º to 24.6º C during the same
period. P. pilligaensis burrows were better designed to induce passive ventilation, namely by the use of a specific
orientation, a tunnel with one entrance at a different angle to the other, the construction of extra entrance holes and
the location of burrows under bushes or young trees. S. murina changed shelter sites regularly and were active, very
mobile throughout the night and sometimes after sunrise, P. pilligaensis tended to be burrow-specific, less active and
social, rarely moving more than 50m from their burrow. Average activity bout length for P. pilligaensis was 11
hours and 47 minutes, and average resting bout length was 11 hours and 25 minutes. Both basking behaviour and
torpor were observed in S. murina while inactive. Normothermic rest period skin temperatures show an overall
37
average Tskin of 32.3°C, with a range of average temperatures of between 30.7 and 33.8°C, torpid periods were
variable in minimum body temperature and arousal rate. A minimum body temperature of 18°C was observed during
torpor. The duration of torpor bouts differed considerably ranging between 58 minutes and three hours and 42
minutes. Nocturnal resting behaviour in P. pilligaensis showed an average resting Tskin for P. pilligaensis at
34.07°C, with an average resting Tskin range for all rest periods recorded was between 32.59 and 34.75°C. Despite
phylogenetic differences, both convergent and divergent physiological and behavioural strategies were observed in
these two species of small mammals while surviving in a winter semi-arid environment.
MOLECULAR ACTIVITY OF SODIUM PUMPS IN THE KIDNEY OF MAMMALS
AND BIRDS
Nigel Tumer1, A.J. Hulbert2 and P.L. Else1
Metabolic Research Centre, and Departments of Biomedical1 & Biological2 Sciences University of Wollongong,
Wollongong, NSW 2522
ntO5@Uow.edu.au
Metabolic intensity is allometrically related to body size in both mammals and birds, with smaller species having an
increased metabolic intensity compared to their larger counterparts. Our current investigation has compared sodium
pumps from the kidney of mammals ranging in body mass from31g to 340kg and birds ranging from 13g to 35kg.
The purpose of our study was to examine whether the molecular activity of sodium pumps from the kidney of these
species, reflected the differences in their metabolism.
The species examined in the study were for mammals: mice, rats, sheep, pigs and cattle, and for birds: zebra finches,
sparrows, starlings, pied currawongs, pigeons, ducks, geese, and emus. Na+K+ATPase activity was measured in
kidney tissue homogenates, and negatively correlated with body mass. Sodium pump density, measured in tissue
biopsies, was essentially constant in mammalian kidney (~ 5000 pmol/g tissue), but scaled negatively with body mass
in the kidney of birds, ranging between 3600 -12500 pmol/g tissue.
Molecular activity was calculated by dividing Na+K+ATPase activity by sodium pump density to give the turnover
rate of ATP by each individual sodium pump. Molecular activity of mammalian sodium pumps was related to body
mass, with mice having a molecular activity of 23,000 ATP/min compared with around 8000-9000 ATP/min in the
larger mammals. The molecular activity of bird sodium pumps however, was fairly constant at around 4000-8000
ATP/min and showed no relationship with body size. These results will be discussed relative to kidney membrane
fatty acid composition which also varies with body mass.
KANGAROOS AND RAT-KANGAROOS: LOCOMOTION ENERGETICS AND LIFE
IN ARID AUSTRALIA
Webster, K N and Dawson, T J
School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences (BEES), University of New South Wales, UNSW Sydney,
NSW 2052
koa@unsw.edu.au
Many species of kangaroos and rat-kangaroos (superfamily Macropodoidea) live in arid or semi-arid habitats. A
contributing factor to their success in these dry environments may be their gait: at fast speeds, hopping by kangaroos
and wallabies is energetically cheaper than running (3), (1). This may be advantageous if extensive travel is required
to access water and feed. However, there has been debate about whether economical locomotion energetics occur in
small hopping mammals (2), (5). A good group for investigation of this question is family Potoroidae, the rat-
kangaroos, and particularly the bettongs (Bettongia, Aepyprymnus and Caloprymnus). In general, bettongs are more
accomplished hoppers, and live in more arid environments than potoroos (Potorous).
38
We examined the locomotion of the brush-tailed bettong, Bettongia penicillata, which is an obligate hopper at fast
speeds. Five bettongs were exercised on a motorised treadmill at speeds from 0.6 to 6.2 ms-1. Oxygen consumption
was measured using an open-flow respirometry system. Maximum energetic output was measured by exercising the
bettongs on an inclined treadmill. Gait parameters were obtained from video footage of the bettongs during exercise.
Bettongia penicillata’s locomotory energetics were different from those of a running quadruped. Although there was
an increase in metabolic rate as speed increased, this increase was significantly lower than expected. Thus, a bettong
hopping at speeds of 2 ms-1 or above uses less energy than a running quadruped of the same mass. The mean
maximum level of metabolism was about 17 times resting levels (2.20 ± 0.131 ml s-1 kg-1), an aerobic scope less than
that of a red kangaroo. Gait patterns followed those seen in red kangaroos (4): stride frequency was invariant across
all hopping speeds (at 3.5 strides s-1), while stride length increased linearly with increasing speed (to a maximum of
1.8 m).
We suggest that economical fast hopping and a constant stride frequency during hopping are conservative
characteristics of the superfamily Macropodoidea, with an evolutionary history of at least 30 million years. Some
more derived features of the Macropodidae include a further reduction in the energetic cost of locomotion and an
enhanced capacity for aerobic performance; these may be linked to the recent extensive radiation of this group some
5 million years ago. The economical gait of both kangaroos and rat-kangaroos may have contributed to their success
in arid and semi-arid environments.
1. Baudinette RV, Snyder GK, and Frappell PB. Energetic cost of locomotion in the tammar wallaby. Am J Physiol
262: R771-R778, 1992.
2. Dawson TJ. Energetic cost of locomotion in Australian hopping mice. Nature 259: 305-307, 1976.
3. Dawson TJ, and Taylor CR. Energetic cost of locomotion in kangaroos. Nature 246: 313-314, 1973.
4. Kram R, and Dawson TJ. Energetics and biomechanics of locomotion by red kangaroos (Macropus rufus). Comp
Biochem Physiol B 120: 41-49, 1998.
5. Thompson SD, MacMillen RE, Burke EM, and Taylor CR. The energetic cost of bipedal hopping in small
mammals. Nature 287: 223-224, 1980.
PELVIC LIMB ANATOMY OF THE RED KANGAROO AND BRUSH-TAILED
BETTONG
Webster, K N, Raad, M C and Dawson, T J
School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences (BEES), University of New South Wales, UNSW Sydney,
NSW 2052
koa@unsw.edu.au
Hopping kangaroos and wallabies show rates of oxygen consumption that do not change over large ranges of speeds
(1), (2). Recently, a similar pattern was observed for hopping Brush-tailed Bettongs (Webster and Dawson,
unpublished). Although the relatively low cost of locomotion in kangaroos has not yet been fully explained (3), it
appears to be associated with both storage of elastic strain energy and powerful locomotory muscles.
We have examined the pelvic limbs of the Red Kangaroo (mass 25-80 kg) and the Brush-tailed Bettong (mass 1 kg).
In both species, probable areas of elastic energy storage were the large, thick tendons associated with the
gastrocnemius and caudofemoralis muscles. Muscles used for power production during hopping were the biceps
femoris, the quadriceps group, caudofemoralis, adductor, gluteal group and gastrocnemius. There were some small
differences in relative size of these muscles between the two species.
1. Baudinette RV, Snyder GK, and Frappell PB. Energetic cost of locomotion in the tammar wallaby. Am J Physiol
262: R771-R778, 1992.
2. Dawson TJ, and Taylor CR. Energetic cost of locomotion in kangaroos. Nature 246: 313-314, 1973.
3. Kram R, and Dawson TJ. Energetics and biomechanics of locomotion by red kangaroos (Macropus rufus). Comp
Biochem Physiol B 120: 41-49, 1998.
39
THE ECOLOGY OF INSECTIVOROUS BATS IN THE SIMPSON DESERT: HABITAT
USE
Amy Williams
School of Biological Sciences, University of Sydney
Current: Ecotone Ecological Consultants Pty Ltd, 39 Platt St., Waratah, NSW 2298.
rowles@tech2u.com.au
Bats living in Australia’s arid zone have been largely ignored by researchers. The honours project aimed to identify
the species of insectivorous bats that occur in the Simpson Desert and to investigate aspects of their ecology. This
poster will focus on habitat use by the bat species present. Seven species of insectivorous bats were positively
identified with the combined use of harp traps, cave inspections and ultrasonic call recordings (using Anabat II
detector systems). These species were Nyctophilus geoffroyi, Vespadelus finlaysoni, Chalinolobus gouldii,
Scotorepens balstoni, Taphozous hilli, Saccolaimus flaviventris and Tadarida australis. An additional species,
Scotorepens greyii was tentatively identified by call recordings. The bats foraged most often over water and on
calmer nights, when insects were more active. Bats predominantly utilised water sources, rocks, dune/swale near
woodland, dry creek line and coolibah woodland habitats. However, they rarely used open habitats (open plain and
dune/swale), acacia scrub and gidgee woodland. Several different requirements may influence habitat use by bats in
the Simpson Desert. One study site at the Field River contained the highest activity of tree-dwelling bat species, and
here the coolibah woodland is more dense and contains a larger number of hollows and dead trees than coolibah
woodland at the other sites. It appears that both tree and cave roost sites may be a limiting resource, resulting in bat
activity being predominantly restricted to the ‘oases’ in the Simpson Desert study area. Food availability (total
abundance and biomass of insects) and permanent water, surprisingly, do not appear to determine the use of different
habitats. Although highly active over water in some areas, bats may survive in the Simpson Desert without access to
permanent water. Larger sample sizes and further investigation during harsher periods of less rainfall, and during
warmer months in the year, are necessary to evaluate the temporal stability of the results presented.
COCOON-FORMING FROGS OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Philip Withers
Department of Zoology, The University of Western Australia, Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009
philip.withers@uwa.edu.au
Most frogs are intolerant of high temperatures and low moisture, so it seems surprising that frogs are such a
conspicuous element of the fauna of deserts, at least after rainfall. Frogs avoid the extremes of desert environments
in various ways, but a common pattern is to burrow underground and aestivate during the hot, dry periods. During
aestivation, frogs typically reduce their metabolic rate to conserve energy stores, and many form a cocoon to reduce
water loss.
The diversity of Western Australian frogs and the wealth of their general background information allowed detailed
physiological studies of cocoon-formation by both hylids (Cyclorana spp and a Litoria?) and myobatrachids
(Neobatrachus spp). The cocoon of these frogs consists of accreted layers of shed skin, which are continually added
to the cocoon during aestivation. Consequently, the resistance of the cocoon to evaporative water loss continues to
increase and the rate of evaporative water loss progressively decreases over time. Concomitant with the reduction in
EWL is a decrease in metabolic rate, to about 1/5 of normal, and this metabolic depression extends the time that a
frog can survive aestivation by about 5 fold (to over 5 years in some species). While cocooned the frogs accumulate
their nitrogenous waste product, urea, and the body fluid concentration can exceed 300 mM. Normally, such high
concentrations of urea perturb the functions of proteins, and this is why animals that normally have high urea levels
(sharks, rays) have counteracting solutes (TMA, betaine); however, aestivating frogs do not have counteracting
solutes, perhaps because perturbation of cell function might contribute to metabolic depression.
40
BREEDING IN WILD POPULATIONS OF THE DASYURID MARSUPIALS
PLANIGALE INGRAMI, SMINTHOPSIS MACROURA AND SMINTHOPSIS DOUGLASI.
P. A. Woolley and C. Elliott
Department of Zoology, La Trobe University, Bundoora VIC 3086
P.Woolley@latrobe.edu.au
The timing of breeding in the wild of three species of dasyurid marsupials has been investigated by examination of
the remains of individuals eaten by feral cats. The cats were collected as part of a separate study on the diet of
introduced predators (cats and foxes) in north-western Queensland in an area where the three species, Planigale
ingrami (Long-tailed Planigale), Sminthopsis macroura (Stripe-faced Dunnart) and Sminthopsis douglasi (Julia
Creek Dunnart) occur in sympatry. Over 20 months in 1995 and 1996 188 cats were shot. The stomachs of 70 of
these contained the remains of dasyurids including 123 P. ingrami, 20 S. macroura and 18 S. douglasi.
Specimens were grouped into one of three age classes (juvenile, sub-adult and adult) based on their dentition. The
reproductive status of each individual was assessed as either immature or mature and the data from 1995 and 1996
were combined and analysed by month of collection.
Reproductively mature adults in breeding condition were present between August and late January. Juvenile, sub-
adult and reproductively immature adult individuals were present from January to August. Specimens that were
assessed to be reproductively mature, but not in breeding condition, were collected during March, April and May. It
was concluded that all three species are seasonal breeders in the wild.
41
