Political systems in Europe

Political systems in Europe 26.9.2007 Prof. Vesa Vares England and Germany before the First World War Political system in Britain up to 1914: General • Whigs and Tories – Liberals and Conservatives • Labour as a latecomer • parliamentarism, limited concept of democracy and franchise • reforms of 1832, 1867, 1884 • Victorian age • Imperialism and Empire-building Liberals • criticism towards the Tories and at least indirectly towards the Crown • democracy and franchise as duties as well as rights • educating people towards political maturity • making the whole nation middle class • criteria for competency: self- and family sustaining life, education, career, setting an example, family values ("the club") • French Revolution and the proclamation of freedom and equality were goals – to be improved and bred by English commonsense and tradition in order to prevent Robespierrean anarchy and terror • the more Leftist orientation – although with moderation • Palmerston, Gladstone, Lloyd George – reform, but hardly revolutionary • from Old Liberalism to Social Liberalism (John Stuart Mill, L.T. Hobhouse etc.) • "positive freedom" and rejection of Social Darwinism, also the rights of women; model for European Liberals – still, only qualified democracy in order to educate the masses to political maturity • Lloyd George and the "people's budget" – progress before liberty • a success and a battle which finally did not win the war – a swansong for the Liberals – could not compete with the Labour Party – not staunch enough against Socialism – however, roots of Keynesianism Conservatives • a "modern" party even before Liberals • more moderate and compliant than the European Conservatives • party of the Crown and the landed gentry • ideological "founding father" originally a Whig: Edmund Burke, "The Reflections on the Revolution in France" (1790) – against Jacobinism, terror and the abstract missions based on doctrines against traditions and "nature" – total democracy as a tool for demagogues and for suppressing minority • Robert Peel and the Corn Laws in the 1840's • serving also the nation, not only the Crown • Benjamin Disraeli (later Lord Beaconsfield) – originally an anathema – political talent and endurance finally prevailed – Young England, "Two Nations" – Prime Minister 1868, 1874–1880; the favourite of Queen Victoria – reform, extended suffrage, British nationalism and imperialism – later nostalgically seen as an ideologist and a reformist • the successors more pragmatic and rightist (lord Salisbury etc.) • the party was considered old-fashioned and even stagnate before the First World War; for example Churchill had defected to the Liberals ("the Conservatives are not a party but a conspiracy") Labour Party • the early industrialization created trade union policy; class division was not theoreticized but taken as a fact to fight • Marxism less influential • the colonies and the heritage of Parliamentarism as outlets • Fabian Society • "reducing Socialism to social policy" • real breakthrough after the World War Political system in Germany up to 1914: General • Numerous special caharacteristics – no national unity – a nationality and an area, not a state – Prussia as an exception as a great power – but one with a militaristic and bureaucratic reputation – loyalty to local Princes and cities – "Untertan" middle class and civic society; reputation of political weakness and indecision – nationalism was more a theory than practice – the structure of the society old-fashioned even after industrialization – in many ways highly developed and respected, for example in science – but considered politically immature The unification by Bismarck • Bismarck the new Reichskanzler 1862 • wars of 1864, 1866 and 1870-71 – originally against a strong domestic opposition • the German Empire 1871 – "Little Germany" – Bismarck's way – in principle a federal state: old Princes and even Kings remained, as did a significant amount of local autonomy – a conservative "strong man" model, no Parliamentarism – Bismarck ultraconservative, but realist and pragmatist, not totalitarianist – laws against the SPD and Kulturkampf – but in a legal manner and as temporary measures which did not violate basic civil rights – advanced social policy to create a nonMarxist working class – "Katedersozialismus" – in foreign policy, no wish for new annexations or changes in European politics – in foreign policy, no wish for new annexations or changes in European politics – "white revolutionary"? – the new Emperor 1888, Wilhelm II; dismissed Bismarck in 1890 • touch of populism and Bonapartism; Wilhelm as a popular cult figure – the "restless Empire"? – many stereotypes of a clumsy Great Power with more hurry than skill The German Party System • no Parliamentarism • in national elections equal and practically universal vote – in local elections very different and complex practices (in Prussia, three categories) • in general, the elections were free, the votes counted correctly and the civil servants uncorrupted and mostly nonpolitical • Left-wing Liberals, the Progressive Party – Western (Rhein area), middle class, democratic, 10-20 % • National Liberals – supporters of Bismarck, in other policies Liberal, originally a big party, lost its following gradually (from about 30 % to about 13 %) • Zentrum – Catholic, Bavarian, anti-Bismarck, could sustain oppression; about 20-25 % • Free Conservatives (later Reichspartei) – supporters of Bismarck, more modern than the main Conservative Party, influential because of prominent supporters and a foothold in administration; 5-10 % • Conservatives – the "Kreuzzeitung Circle", high nobility and landed gentry, East Prussia, very "estate conscious", originally suspicious against Bismarck; 12-25 % – the Pan-German movement remained an obscurity – no real political weight yet • Social Democrats, SPD – SPD in 1869, united party in 1875 – the model for other Europeans; big, powerful, could withstand the oppression against Bismarck, leading authorities on Socialist theory, "Marx' own party" – W. Liebknecht, Bebel, Kautsky, Bernstein, Luxemburg, K. Liebknecht – officially, an unrelenting, pure Marxist line against peacemeal reform – the Bernstein debates; officially rejected by Kautsky and the Erfurt Party Programme 1891; in practice adapted in many areas – in the end, almost 35 % of the votes – officially revolutionary and pacifist; approved the financial grants for the war in 1914