European political systems and ideologies

European political systems and ideologies Political parties and movements from the end of the 19th century up to 1991 General background: parties, ideologies, mentalities • the essence and power of political parties – to make any system operate – the motives, goals, mentalities – reflections of values and mentalities – the way to control and govern • the limits of political parties – social and economic structures, individuals, groups, conspiracies etc. Mentality and ideology • mentality – not written, not necessarily conscious – "instinct", "taken for granted", "permanent" • ideology – discussed, debated, written down – at least conscious – resembles the same phenomenon in other countries • "concrete policy" and comparisons Definition of terms • Liberalism – an imprecise term – attitude, temperament etc. – no wish for "totality" – mostly a positive stereotype: reformism, democracy, human rights, law, optimist view of human nature (rationality and unselfishness), tolerance, internationalism – negative: "anything goes", vagueness, weakness, lack of responsibility – American: "Pinko" • Conservatism – equally, if not even more imprecise – and usually a "label" – aversion towards "theories" compared to "natural way of things" – pessimist view of human nature – negative stereotype: movement of the wealthy and egoistic, soft on Fascism, reactionary, rightist, intolerance, fear of anything new, militarism, nationalism, prejudices • Socialism – definitely a political term – the orientation thoroughly researched – plenty of sources • drawback: political passions and rivalry – only Marxists? – Social Democrats or Communists? – stereotypes from Red Terror to patronizing welfare state and individualist idealism • Social Democrats / Socialists – collectivist, class interests, equality; nationalism, individualism secondary – theory and determinism – adaptation and reformism – a will to "organize everything" – pacifism and antimilitarism contra class struggle? – in principle an optimistic view of human nature • Communism – ideological foundation, theoretical background the same – conclusions more radical, reformism often condemned – conformism, no opposition allowed; infallibility of the party, democratic centralism – "Homo Sovieticus" • Fascism and National Socialism – specific problem: does "Fascism" mean anything anymore? – Mussolini, Hitler, Pinochet – Le Pen, Pol Pot? "health fascism"? "gender fascism"? – stereotypes definitely negative • Common features of NS and Fascism – collectivist, anti-liberal mass movements, anticonservative, anti-capitalist, anti-clerical – admiration of action, not theories – antiintellectualism – militarism, soldier virtues, masculinity – Führerprinzip – outside the "distorting" parliamentarism • Distinct Fascism – state more important than nation – Empire rather than a nation state – Roman past – but also future-orientated – originally not anti-Semitic – a conflict between labour and capital – corporatism • Distinct to National Socialism – the nation more important than the state – anti-Semitism, racism, "Blut und Boden" – Führerprinzip even more total and mystified – no corporatism or conflict between labour and capital – nostalgic rather than future-orientated • Populism? – defending the "small man" against plutocrats and institutions – leaders not Führers, but even more necessary to political survival – nationalism, xenophobia – emotion and instinct above rationalism – however, no consistent beliefs or reference to violence General features of the late 19th century • Starting points which no political orientation could escape – mentalities, beliefs, possibilities and resources – the French Revolution(s), the "old" or the "new" world? – tradition – and a knowledge that change was possible and could be impossible to control – economic liberalism, booms and depression, Social Darwinism, the Marxist alternative – the "scientific" aspect of Marxism – the "new" very diffuse: rhetoric radicalism and pragmatism – or barbarism? – nationalism, imperialism and Eurocentric thinking • the self-evidencies and morals very different from today – and the main belief was one of progress The Model – English Parliamentarism • Parliamentarism did not mean democracy and universal suffrage – even in England • the English reputation of success: – economy, "Bank of the World", Empire, no revolutions, gradual change and "upbringing" – the ruling middle class – practical, sound, no-nonsense people and a system that worked – liberal statesmen – Mill, Gladstone; conservative reformist – Disraeli – principle of Parliamentarism – reforms of 1832, 1867, 1884 – the first real parties (Whig and Tory – Liberal and Conservative) • the English system was not universally admired – but it was thought to be the direction the political society would go to • the European labour movement, however, had rather German models