Passchendaele

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Battle of Passchendaele Battle of Passchendaele Battle of Passchendaele Third Battle of Ypres Part of the Western Front of World War I 508,800 dead, wounded, missing, or captured[1] 348,300 dead, wounded, missing, or captured[1] Australian gunners on a duckboard track in Château Wood near Hooge, 29 October 1917. Photo by Frank Hurley. Date Location 11 July 1917 – 10 November 1917 50°54′1″N 3°1′16″E / 50.90028°N 3.02111°E / 50.90028; 3.02111 (Passendale)Coordinates: 50°54′1″N 3°1′16″E / 50.90028°N 3.02111°E / 50.90028; 3.02111 (Passendale) Passendale, Belgium Allied Victory Result Belligerents • • • • • United Kingdom Australia Canada India New Zealand South Africa France Commanders Douglas Haig Hubert Gough Herbert Plumer John Monash François Anthoine Arthur Currie Casualties and losses Max von Gallwitz Erich Ludendorff German Empire The Battle of Passchendaele, or Third Battle of Ypres[2] was one of the major battles of World War I. The battle consisted of a series of operations starting in June 1917 and petering out in November 1917 in which Entente troops under British command attacked the Imperial German Army.[3] The battle was fought for control of the village of Passchendaele near the town of Ypres in West Flanders, Belgium. The attack served several strategic purposes. A successful attack offered the British a chance of inflicting significant casualties on the German army. A breakthrough in Flanders would hinder the German submarine campaign against British shipping, and also help prevent German bombers from attacking targets in mainland Britain. Whether successful or not, the attack would prevent the German Army from exploiting the serious morale problems of the French. During the battle, British troops launched several massive attacks, heavily supported by artillery and aircraft. However, they never managed to make a breakthrough in well-entrenched German lines. The battle consisted of a series of ’Bite and Hold’ attacks to capture critical terrain and wear down the German army, lasting until the Canadian Corps took Passchendaele on 6 November 1917, ending the battle. Passchendaele has become synonymous with the misery of fighting in thick mud. Most of the battle took place on reclaimed marshland, swampy even without rain. 1917 had an unusually cold and wet summer, and heavy artillery bombardment tore up the surface of the land. Though there were dry periods, mud nevertheless feature of the landscape; newly-developed tanks bogged down in mud, and soldiers drowned in it. The battle is a subject of fierce debate among historians, particularly in Britain. The volume of the British Official History of the War which covered Passchendaele was the last to be published, and there is evidence it 1 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia was biased to reflect well on Douglas Haig and badly on General Gough, the commander of the Fifth Army.[4] The heavy casualties suffered by the British Army in return for slender territorial gains have led many historians to follow the example of David Lloyd George, the Prime Minister of the time, and use it as an example of senseless waste and poor generalship. There is also a revisionist school of thought which seeks to emphasise the achievements of the British Army in the battle, in inflicting great damage on the German Army, relieving pressure on the distressed French, and developing offensive tactics capable of dealing with German defensive positions, which were significant in winning the war in 1918.[5] Casualty figures for the battle are still a matter of some controversy. Some accounts suggest that the Allies suffered significantly heavier losses than the Germans, while others offer more even figures. However, no-one disputes that hundreds of thousands of soldiers on both sides were killed or crippled.[6] Future Fuhrer of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler, was a Gefreiter in this battle. The last surviving veteran of the battle, Private Harry Patch, was born on 17 June 1898. Battle of Passchendaele Haig was ordered to prepare a major British offensive.[11] For some time, the idea of a Flanders offensive had been in Haig’s mind. In January 1916, Haig had ordered plans to be drawn up for an attack in Flanders,[12] and the attack might well have happened that year had the Germans not launched the Battle of Verdun.[13] In December 1916, Haig identified Flanders as the most promising theatre for a British offensive of 1917.[14] and by January 1917 the idea of a Flanders offensive had met with the approval of the British Cabinet[15] Ypres was the only Belgian city not in German hands, and had become an important political symbol; if the Germans ever captured Ypres, they would be able to threaten the Channel ports and so threaten British supply lines.[16] Driving the Germans away from Ypres would be a valuable objective. Furthermore, roughly one-third of the Uboats which had recently begun unrestricted submarine warfare against Britain were based in occupied Belgian ports.[17] They assumed great importance in spring 1917 as shipping losses mounted and people began to ask "Can the Army win the war before the Navy lose it?";[18] taking Passchendaele, and Roulers behind it, would threaten the Belgian ports. Indeed, if the attack went very well it would be possible to outflank the whole German position in Belgium and threaten the German industrial heartland on the Ruhr, which might win the war quickly.[19] For the British generals, it was also considered valuable that the German Army would fight hard to retain its positions in Flanders.[20] In the Somme sector, which had seen the major British attack of 1916, German troops could withdraw up to 15 miles without affecting their strategic position. This was in fact just what they did in March 1917.[21] By contrast, the strategic importance of Flanders meant German troops would be loath to withdraw, and would hold their ground even under unfavourable circumstances. Haig was optimistic that the German Army would soon run out of manpower because of the heavy losses suffered on the Somme and at Verdun.[22] In April 1917, the planned French attack—the "Nivelle Offensive"—took place beginning in April 1917, with the main effort by the French on the Aisne while British and Empire forces undertook a preliminary, secondary, attack at Arras. The French attack Background The Entente grand strategy for 1917 was agreed at a conference in Chantilly in November 1916, and a series of subsequent meetings. The Entente would overwhelm the Central Powers by means of attacks on the Western, Eastern and Italian Fronts.[7] Early in the New Year, the Prime Minister David Lloyd George proposed at a conference in Rome that British and French artillery should be transferred to the Italian front to add weight to the offensive there.[8] This suggestion attracted the overt opposition of the French and Italian delegations, as well as the covert opposition of the British officers, and was discarded.[9] However, the new French Commander-in-Chief, Robert Nivelle, believed that a concentrated attack by French forces on the Western Front in Spring 1917 could break the German front and lead to a quick victory. Nivelle’s plan was welcomed by the British; while many were sceptical that the French would deliver a breakthrough, a French attack would nevertheless mean less of the burden of the war in 1917 falling on British shoulders.[10] Nonetheless, 2 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia failed disastrously. Nivelle was relieved and replaced by Philippe Petain. Over the course of the summer, it became clear that the failure of the offensive had caused a a collapse in morale amongst French troops.[23] However, the failure of the French attack only reinforced the importance of the British offensive, as the French were exhausted, and Lloyd George had no option but to support Haig’s planned attack.[24] Through May, the plans for the Flanders offensive were worked out in more detail, and on 7 June 1917 the first stage of the attack was launched. Battle of Passchendaele the north.[25][26] Ypres was therefore in a salient sticking out into German positions and overlooked by German artillery on higher ground. The geography of the Salient also meant that it was difficult for the British forces to gain any observation of the German rear areas east of the ridges.[27] The high ground would, indeed, prove crucial to the British offensive. The Germans were aware that an attack in the Flanders sector was very likely, and had prepared extensive positions. German experience during 1916 indicated that it was relatively easy for a British assault to take over the first line of defence supported by heavy artillery. Furthermore, the terrain in most of the Salient was muddy and not good for digging trenches. Therefore, the Germans controlled the forward area with mutually supporting positions, generally based on concrete pillboxes or blockhouses protected by barbed wire, making use of existing buildings or vegetation where possible. To the rear of this zone were a series of five reserve lines of defence.[28] The other principal feature of the Ypres salient was mud. Apart from the ’ridges’, the battlefield was very low-lying, almost no higher than sea level. Naturally swampy, these plains were only viable farmland thanks to a dense irrigation system.[29] After several years of fighting in the area, this was largely destroyed. 1917 was also a year of particularly foul weather, with a very late spring and not much summer to speak of.[30] There were thunderstorms in July and August, and while September was dry, October and onwards were wet. The mud was to become one of the defining features of the battle for soldiers on both sides, and did a great deal to hamper British operations. Haig was certainly aware of the nature of the ground he was launching his attack over,[31] and was closely monitoring the weather conditions faced by his troops.[32] However, what he knew, or ought to have known, about the likely weather conditions is one of the many controversies about the battle.[33] Ypres Salient and its Weather Start (brown line, left) and end (red line, right) positions of the battle The situation around Ypres had changed relatively little since the end of the First Battle of Ypres in October 1914. The British held the town of Ypres itself, while the Germans held the high ground of the Messines-Wytschaete ridge to the south of the town, the lower ridges the east and the flat ground to Messines Ridge The first stage in the British plan was a preparatory attack on the German positions south of Ypres at Messines Ridge. These German positions dominated Ypres and, unless neutralised, would be able to enfilade any 3 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Battle of Passchendaele explosive between them.[40] The Germans were aware of British mining efforts, and had taken some countermeasures, but the scale of the mines came as a total surprise to them.[41] Two of the British mines failed to detonate, but the remaining 19 were fired simultaneously at 03.10 GMT.[42] The impact was immense, destroying a large part of the German front line and support positions. The sound was audible 200 km away. "Suddenly at 4am there was an almighty roar and the earth began to quake: Explosion! Attack! Both officers and men poured out of the entrance into the open air. An awe-inspiring and appalling sight met their eyes. The hills from Wijtschate to Messines were enveloped in a sea of flames. Fourteen fiery volcanos and masses of earth erupted vertically into the sky colouring it a blood red. Then the great masses of earth crashed back down to the ground and, simultaneously, drum fire of unprecedented violence crashed down."[43] As soon as the mines exploded, the British guns sprang back into life, providing a heavy creeping barrage which was closely followed by assaulting infantry and tanks.[44] Messines itself was taken at around 05.00. The second phase of the attack began at 07.00 and by 09.00 the British had taken Wytschaete. German resistance was scant and German positions were overwhelmed. At 15.10 the attack was as fresh troops, supported by tanks, pressed down the ridge to the final objectives, which were largely gained before dark on the 7th.[45] British losses in the morning were light, although the plan had expected casualties of up to 50% in the initial attack. As the advance continued over the ridge, British supporting artillery was less able to provide supporting fire, while giving easier opportunities to German artillery fire.[46] Fighting continued around Messines Ridge until 12 June.[47] The attack was generally considered a success. It demonstrated that, by bringing overwhelming firepower to bear and resisting the temptation to set overambitious goals, it was possible for the attacking side to prevail, even against fortified A dummy tree used as an observation post on Hill 63 by Australian troops during the battle British attack eastwards from the Salient.[34] Messines and Wytschaete were exposed as well as powerful, and their defence was a preoccupation of the German troops in the sector.[35] Both villages had been heavily fortified, and the area was littered with pillboxes, blockhouses and dugouts. In accordance with the German Army’s newly-developed defensive methods, the forward area was lightly held, with counter-attack formations held in reserve.[36] The attack on Messines was the responsibility of General Sir Herbert Plumer and the British Second Army. Plumer’s plan called on nine infantry divisions from X, IX and II Anzac Corps to advance 1,500 yards and take the first line of German defences on the front line of the ridge. This plan was extended by Haig to require the capture of the second line of defences on the rear crest of the ridge, including Wytschate itself, and also to move down the reverse slope to take a further line of defences. This would mean an advance of about 3,000 yards.[37] A massive preparatory bombardment for the attack began on 21 May Plumer deployed a total of 2,266 artillery pieces, of which 757 were heavy-calibre.[38] A particular role of the bombardment was counter-battery fire against German artillery positions. In spite of the Germans bringing 630 guns to bear, this was largely successful.[39] The British advance began on 7 June, and was preceded by a unique display of military pyrotechnics. Since mid-1915, the British had been constructing mines under the German positions on the Messines Ridge. By June 1917, a total of 21 mines had been dug, filled with nearly 1,000,000 lb (450,000 kg) of high 4 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia positions. Over 7,000 German prisoners were taken, along with 48 artillery pieces.[48] Battle of Passchendaele Numerous concrete machine gun emplacements were constructed between the German first line of defence, through to the Flandern I strategic defensive line. The purpose of these machine guns positions was to break up (i.e. disrupt and confuse) and slow an allied attack which had breached the defensive lines, allowing the German counter-attacking troops time to attack before the Allied troops had re-organised themselves after breaching the main defensive lines. In addition to this, the number of German troops defending the front line had been reduced (both to man the machinegun emplacements between the defensive lines, as well to reduce the number of soldiers vulnerable to Allied artillery fire). Into these defences, the Germans had put 13 divisions (5 on the front line, 4 in close reserve and another 4 in strategic reserve) and 1150 pieces of artillery. German Defences July - August 1917 As a second stage of the action, General Sir Hubert Gough was put in charge of the attacks to secure the Gheluvelt Plateau which overlooked Ypres. Many field guns were moved into the area and started a four-day bombardment, but the Germans recognized the sign of an impending offensive, and moved more troops in to reinforce the defences. In July the Germans used mustard gas for the first time. It attacked sensitive parts of the body, caused blistering, damage to the lungs and inflammation of the eyes, causing blindness (sometimes temporary) and great pain. One problem in carrying the offensive forward was the Yser Canal, but this was taken on 27 July when the Allies found the German trenches empty. German defensive lines in late 1917 around the Ypres Salient The 6 week delay after the Battle of Messines allowed the Germans ample time to prepare for the next British attack. With the transfer of the defensive expert, Colonel von Lossberg to the German 4th Army (as Chief of Staff), the Germans used this time to improve the defences in the area. In addition to the existing 4 lines of defences (the German first, second and third line of defences, plus the strategic defensive line (the Flandern I Line)), an additional strategic defensive line was constructed behind the newly won territory to the south of Ypres (the Flandern II Line), as well as a third strategic defensive line (Flandern III) was started on the reverse slope of the Passchendaele Ridge. In addition to these defensive lines, a policy of ’elastic defence’ was implemented. Battle of Pilckem Ridge 31 July Four days later, the main offensive opened with a major assault at Pilckem ridge, when the Allies gained about 2,000 yards (1,800 m). The Allies suffered about thirtytwo thousand casualties — killed, wounded or missing — in this one action. This was another example of the new ’bite-and-hold’ tactics that were proving successful in clearing German defences. German casualties were also substantial, not least because Allied artillery 5 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Battle of Passchendaele and instead intended to launch a succession of attacks, each with strictly limited objectives, in a strategy known as bite and hold.[49] Battle of Menin Road 20 - 25 September British 18 pounder battery taking up new positions near Boesinghe, 31 July had learned to anticipate the usual German counterattack and were ready for it. The war poets Hedd Wyn and Francis Ledwidge were both killed during this offensive. Battle of Langemarck 16 - 18 August Ground conditions during the whole Ypres-Passchendaele action were bad because the ground was already fought-over and partially flooded. Continuous shelling had destroyed drainage canals in the area, and unseasonable heavy rain turned the whole area into a sea of mud and water-filled shell-craters. The troops walked up to the front over paths made of duckboards laid across the mud, often carrying up to one hundred pounds (45 kg) of equipment. It was possible for them to slip off the path into the craters and drown before they could be rescued. The trees were reduced to blunted trunks, the branches and leaves torn away, and the bodies of men buried after previous actions were often uncovered by the rain or later shelling. Australian troops amidst the devastation of war in Ypres, ca. 1917 By now, 1,295 guns were concentrated in the area, approximately one for every five yards of attack front. On 20 September at the battle of Menin Road, after a massive bombardment, the Allies attacked and managed to hold their objective of about 1,500 yards (1,400 m) gained, despite heavy counterattacks, suffering twenty-one thousand casualties. The Germans by this time had a semipermanent front line, with very deep dugouts and concrete pillboxes, supported by artillery accurately ranged on no man’s land. The attack was a major success and caused no small panic to German commanders; proving quite clearly to them that wellprepared defences could no longer fend off a well-prepared attack under good conditions. It convinced them that the standard defences September 1917 In view of the failure of the British Fifth Army to make any appreciable headway, Haig decided to transfer the weight of the offensive towards to the south-east along the southern half of Passchendaele Ridge.[49] The main offensive was therefore switched to British Second Army under command of General Herbert Plumer. Plumer abandoned tactics focused on achieving a major break-through 6 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia of lines of trenches that had served so well up until now was obsolete, and that a more elastic defence system would have to be put in place. Battle of Passchendaele Changes to German Defences After the Battle of Menin Road, the German defensive policy was changed. Convinced that the thinly held front lines were allowing the Allies to advance, the policy was changed to increase the number of troops on the front line. In addition, the counter-attacking forces were often arriving late in the afternoon, resulting in the counter-attacks being hurriedly carried out in fading light while under the Allied standing defensive artillery barrage. The German defensive policy was changed to hold the counter-attacking troops back, and initiate the counter-attacks early the next morning. These changes resulted in the Germans sustaining higher casualties - both before and during a battle. The increased numbers on the front line, while increasing the defensive strength, also increased the German casualties from the Allied preparatory artillery fire. And the decision to delay the counter-attacking troops resulted in counter-attacks taking place against troops that had additional time to resolve the confusion created during an attack and to organise defences. German soldier wounded during Battle of Broodseinde 5th and 2nd Armies (on a 13,000 m front) managed to penetrate the German defenses to an average depth of 900 m (with some units advancing as far as 1700 m). However, immediately prior to the battle, the advent of rain made the advance difficult in places, as well as raised the possibility that future attacks would have to be called off due to rain. The Second Army captured a total of 4152 prisoners[50] during the battle, however this had a tragic aftermath. The British high command mistakenly concluded that the number of enemy casualties meant enemy resistance was faltering. It resolved to make another push immediately. An attack on 9 October by British and Australian troops was to open the way for II Anzac Corps to capture Passchendaele on the 12th. Battle of Polygon Wood 26 September - 3 October Further advances at Polygon Wood and Broodseinde on the southwestern edge of the salient accounted for another two thousand yards and thirty thousand Allied casualties. The British line was now overlooked by the Passchendaele ridge, which therefore became an important objective and made the capture of the high ground even more of an imperative. Battle of Poelcappelle 9 October Main article: Battle of Poelcappelle An advance on 9 October by over 10 divisions of the French First Army, and British 2nd and 5th Armies at Poelkapelle (or Poelcappelle to the British) was a dismal failure for the Allies, with only minor advances by exhausted troops, at a cost of 13,000 casualties. October - November 1917 Battle of Broodseinde 4 October Main article: Battle of Broodseinde With much of the ridgeline on the south of the salient captured during the preceeding battles, the emphasis now shifted to the ridgeline to the southeast. The attack on the 4th of October by 12 Divisions of the British First Battle of Passchendaele The First Battle of Passchendaele, on 12 October 1917 began with a further Allied attempt by 5 British and 3 ANZAC divisions (the New Zealand Division and the Australian 3rd and 4th Divisions) to gain ground around Poelkapelle. The heavy rain again made movement difficult, and artillery could not be brought closer to the front owing to the mud. 7 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Battle of Passchendaele 23rd[53] (the attack actually took place on the 24th). The attack consisted of units from XVIII Corps (18th Division) and XIV Corps (34th and 35th Divisions), as well as units from the French I Corp (1st Division)[54]. The attack commenced at 5:35 am, with the French 1st Division and the British 35th Division attacking north/northeast towards the Houthulst Forest, and the British 34th and 18th Divisions attacking northeast/east from Poelcappelle[55]. The French 1st Division sucessfully covered the left flank of the attack towards the Houthulst Forest, while the British 35th Division initially managed to seize its first objectives, but was forced back to its starting line by German counter-attacks[56]. The left flank of the attack by the British 34th Division was unsucessful, while the right flank managed to keep up with the attacking forces of the British 18th Division (who managed to advance 3-400 yards and captured rest of Poelcappelle[57]). The British 5th Army sustained 478 casulties during the attack[58]. Aerial view of Passchendaele village before and after the battle. The Allied troops were fought-out, and morale was suffering. Against the well-prepared German defences, the gains were minimal and there were 13,000 Allied casualties. On this day there were more than 2,700 New Zealand casualties, of which 45 officers and 800 men were either dead or lying mortally wounded between the lines. In terms of lives lost in a single day, this remains the blackest day in New Zealand’s recorded history. By this point there had been 100,000 Allied casualties, with only limited gains and no breakthrough. Second Battle of Passchendaele 26 October - 10 November Main article: Second Battle of Passchendaele The four divisions of the Canadian Corps were transferred to the Ypres Salient and tasked with making additional advances on Passchendaele.[59] The Canadian Corps relieved II Anzac Corps on 18 October from their positions along the valley between Gravenstafel Ridge and the heights at Passchendaele.[60] Interestingly, it was virtually the same front as had been occupied by the 1st Canadian Division back in April 1915.[60] The Canadian Corps operation was to be executed in series of three attacks each with limited objectives, delivered at intervals of three or more days. As the Canadian Corps position was directly south of the inter-army boundary between British Fifth and Second Army, the British Fifth Army would mount subsidiary operations on the Canadian Corps’ left flank while the I Anzac Corps would advance to protect the right flank.[61] The execution dates of the phases were tentatively given as 26 October, 30 October and 6 November.[61] The first stage began on the morning of 26 October.[62] The 3rd Canadian Division was assigned the northern flank which included Attack on 22 October 22 October The British 5th Army undertook 2 small operations on the 22nd, one with the French First Army at Houthulst Forest, the other east of Poelcappelle[51]. The objective of the attack was to maintain pressure on the Germans while the Canadians were getting ready for the Second Battle of Passchendaele [52], as well as supporting the French attack on Malmaison (the last attack during the Second Battle of the Aisne), planned to start on the 8 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Battle of Passchendaele the Canadian Corps, so that the central portion of the assault could proceed under a single command.[66] Three consecutive rainless days between 3 and 5 November aided logistical preparations and reorganization of the troops for the next stage.[67] The third stage began the morning of 6 November with the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions having taken over the front, relieving the 3rd and 4th Canadian Divisions respectively. Less than three hours after the start of the assault, many units had reached their final objective lines and the town of Passchendaele had been captured. A final successful action to gain the remaining high ground north of the village in the vicinity of Hill 52 was launched 10 November.[68] This attack on 10 November brought to an end the long drawn-out Third Battle of Ypres. The Second Battle of Passchendaele cost the Canadian Corps 15 654 casualties with over 4 000 dead, in 16 days of fighting.[69][70] Terrain through which the Canadian Corps advanced at Passchendaele in late 1917 the sharply rising ground of the Bellevue spur. South of the Ravebeek creek, the 4th Canadian Division would take the Decline Copse which straddled the Ypres-Roulers railway.[63] The 3rd Canadian Division captured the Wolf Copse and secured its objective line but was ultimately forced to drop a defensive flank to link up with the flanking division of the British Fifth Army. The 4th Canadian Division initially captured all its objectives, but gradually retreated from the Decline Copse due to German counterattacks and mis-communications between the Canadian and Australian units to the south.[64] The second stage began on 30 October and was intended to capture the position not captured during the previous stage and gain a base for the final assault on Passchendaele.[64] The southern flank was to capture the strongly held Crest Farm while the northern flank was to capture the hamlet of Meetcheele as well as the Goudberg area near the Canadian Corps’ northern boundary.[65] The southern flank quickly captured Crest Farm and begun sending patrols beyond its objective line and into Passchendaele itself. The northern flank was again met with exceptional German resistance. The 3rd Canadian Division captured Vapour Farm at the corps’ boundary, Furst Farm to the west of Meetcheele and the crossroads at Meetcheele, but remained short of its objective line.[65] To permit time to facilitate inter-divisional reliefs, there was a planned seven day pause between the second and third stage. British Second Army was ordered to take over section of the British Fifth Army front adjoining Aftermath Passchendaele could be regarded by some as a re-play of the Battle of the Somme a year earlier, that is as a giant offensive aimed at causing a breakthrough in trench warfare that gradually broke down and evolved into a bloody attrition battle that resulted in enormous casualties for minimal gains. The battle even occurred within an almost-identical time frame of the Somme Offensive, starting in July and ending in mid-November 1917, by which time the Allies had crawled forward eight kilometres and had taken over half a million casualties for strategically worthless terrain in the process. Though the German losses were smaller – around 350,000 – they were also irreplaceable, unlike those of the Allies. A final similarity to the Somme is the difficulty to declare the battle a victory for either side, though as the Allies did succeed in taking all their objectives, and inflicted overwhelming and unaffordable German casualties, it can be said to be a (staggeringly Pyrrhic) Allied victory. Because of the Third Battle of Ypres there were insufficient reserves available to exploit the Allied success at the Battle of Cambrai, the first breakthrough by massed tanks, that restored somewhat the shaken confidence of the British government in the final victory. 9 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The politicians were reluctant however to fully replace the manpower losses, for fear the new troops would be sacrificed also. This made the British Army vulnerable to a German attack. The major German offensive of 1918, Operation Michael, began on 21 March 1918, and a supporting operation which became the Battle of the Lys, began on 9 April. This regained almost all of the ground taken by the Allies at Passchendaele, with the Germans advancing about 6 miles (9.7 km). This meant that every inch of ground gained in the offensive was lost to the Germans, in a space of about three days. However, the Germans were also easily pushed away from Ypres once more in the fifth and final battle around the city in September and October 1918. Altogether, the four years of fighting around Ypres claimed the lives of some 300,000 soldiers of the British Empire; of whom 90,000 have no known graves. These battles, and those British Empire soldiers who gave their lives, are commemorated at the Menin Gate Memorial in Ypres, the Tyne Cot Cemetery and Memorial to the Missing, the largest Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in the world with nearly 12,000 graves. The German cemetery in the region is also a massive one, as a sizeable proportion of their casualties on the Western Front also fell around Ypres. More than any other battle, Passchendaele has come to symbolise the horrific nature of the great battles of the First World War. In terms of the dead, the Germans lost approximately 260,000 men, while the British Empire forces lost about 300,000, including approximately 36,500 Australians, 3,596 New Zealanders and some 16,000 Canadians from 1915 to 1917. 90,000 British and Dominion bodies were never identified, and 42,000 never recovered. Aerial photography showed 1,000,000 shell holes in 1 square mile (2.56 km2). Battle of Passchendaele The Tyne Cot Memorial to the Missing and the Tyne Cot Cemetery Canadian Passchendaele Memorial course numerous tributes and memorials all over Australia and New Zealand like the plaques at the Christchurch and Dunedin railway stations to the men of the NZ railway who fell at Passchendaele and in the Great War.[71] Canada After the war, Canada placed memorials at eight sites where the Canadian Corps had made significant contributions to the fighting in the Great War. The Canadian Battle of Passchendaele Memorial is located at the former site of the ’Crest Farm’ on the southwest fringe of Passendale village. The memorial is on a street named Canadalaan, which leads from the village further southwest to the final resting place of many of the Canadians killed in the battle, Tyne Cot Cemetery. Scotland One of the newest memorials to be dedicated to the fighting contribution of a group is the Celtic Cross memorial commemorating the Scottish contribution and efforts to the fighting in Flanders during the Great War. The memorial is located on the Frezenberg Memorials ANZAC Tyne Cot Cemetery its graves, memorial wall and blockhouses is seen by many to be a testament to the ANZAC contribution to the Battle of Passchendaele as the ANZAC forces were the troops who wrested the stronghold from the German defenders. There are of 10 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Ridge where Scotlands 9th and 15th Divisions, as part of the British Army, fought during the Battle of Passchendaele. The monument was dedicated by the Scottish Parliament’s Minister for Europe Linda Fabiani during the late summer of 2007, the 90th anniversary of the battle. Germany Battle of Passchendaele [3] Entente forces includedBritish, Canadian, South African, French and ANZAC units [4] Travers, The Killing Ground p.215–7 [5] Terraine, The Road to Passchendaele p.336–342; Travers, The Killing Ground, p.xxi [6] Terraine, The Road to Passchendaele, p.342–7 [7] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p.30 [8] Terraine, Road to Passchendaele, p.28–9; Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p31–2; Winter, Haig’s Command, p.73. Terraine and Steel & Hart put much greater weight on the importance of the Italian proposal than does Winter. [9] Terraine, Road the Passchendaele, p.29 [10] Terraine, The Road to Passchendaele, p.24–5 [11] Winter, Haig’s Command, p.78. In his words, the French were to be used as hors d’oeuvres for the British attack [12] Terraine, Road to Passchendaele, p.14 [13] Terraine, Road to Passchendaele, p.15 [14] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p.28 [15] Winter, Haig’s Command, p.78 [16] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p.29 [17] Terraine, Road to Passchendaele p.3, 17–24. [18] Terraine, Road to Passchendaele p.32, 82; Steel and Hart, Passchendaelep.29 [19] Winter, Haig’s Command, p.88 [20] Terraine, Road to Passchendaele, p.336; Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p.29 [21] Winter, Haig’s Command, p.73 [22] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p.29 [23] Keegan, First World War, p.348–9 [24] Terraine, Road to Passchendaele, p.87–89; Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p.36 [25] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p.18–19 [26] ’High ground’ is a relative term. Passchendaele itself is on a ’ridge’ about 70ft above the surrounding plains. The ’Gheluvelt Plateau’ is about 100ft above. Wytschaete is about 150ft above the plain. Cf Terraine, p.2. [27] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p.42 [28] Sheldon, The German Army at Passchendaele, p.xi [29] Sheldon, The German Army at Passchendaele, p.x [30] Terraine, Road to Passchendaele, p.21 [31] Winter, Haig’s Command, p.92 [32] Terraine, Road to Passchendaele, p.206 Memorial stone of German soldiers killed during the battle, at Deutscher Soldatenfriedhof Menen See also • VCs of the First World War Passchendaele 1917 Notes [1] ^ Ellis, James; Cox, Michael (2001). World War I Databook. Aurum. ISBN 1854107666. [2] ’Third Battle of Ypres’ was the name adopted by the British Official History of World War I. ’Passchendaele’ is also commonly used by historians. In German, the usual name is ’Dritte Flandernschlacht’ (Third Flanders Battle) 11 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [33] For instance, Haig’s biographer Brig. John Charteris, who was also his Intelligence Officer, says that "Careful investigation of the records of 80 years showed that in Flanders the weather broke early with the regularity of the Indian monsoon". Lt Col Ernest Gold, the BEF’s meteorological expert at the time, later went on record to contradict him, saying "It is quite contrary to the evidence of the records which show that the weather in August 1917 was exceptionally bad...". Historians nevertheless differ on whether the weather of Flanders in 1917 was typical or not. For instance, Winter takes the view that Haig had conclusive evidence that should have led him to expect heavy rainfall and hence mud. Steel and Hart by contrast take the view that Haig was unlucky. Winter, p.91–2; Hart and Steel, p.140–1; Terraine, p.205–6 [34] Sheldon, German Army at Passchendaele, p.1 [35] Sheldon, German Army at Passchendaele, p.1; Terraine Road to Passchendaele, p.118 [36] Steel and Hart, Passcendaele, p42–3 [37] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p41–2 [38] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p.44 [39] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p.44 [40] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p. 41, 44. [41] Sheldon, German Army at Passchendaele, p. 23 [42] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, p.48–50 [43] Oberleutnant Eugen Reitinger, 3rd Battalion Bavarian Infantry Regiment, quoted in Sheldon p.7. NB "4am" is approximately the right time GMT+1 [44] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele p.50–54; Terraine Road to Passchendaele p.120 [45] Steel and Hart, ’Passchendaele, p.55; Terraine Road to Passchendaele, p.120 [46] Steel and Hart, ’Passchendaele, p.55 [47] Shelford, German Army at Passchendaele, p.28 [48] Steel and Hart, Passchendaele, pp56–6; Shelford, German Army at Passchendaele, p28–9 [49] ^ Nicholson 308 [50] British Second Army HQ War Diary (General Staff) for October, available online (courtesy of the Australian War Memorial) - General Staff, Headquarters 2nd Army [51] Bean, Vol IV Pg. 930n Battle of Passchendaele [52] Edmonds, Vol II Pg. 347 [53] Bean, Vol IV Pg. 929 [54] Edmonds, Vol II Pg. 348 [55] Evans, Pg. 133 [56] Evans, Pg. 134 [57] Evans, Pg. 134 [58] Edmonds, Vol II Pg. 348n [59] Bean 929 [60] ^ Nicholson 312 [61] ^ Nicholson 314 [62] Wolff 246 [63] Nicholson 318 [64] ^ Nicholson 320 [65] ^ Nicholson 321 [66] Nicholson 323 [67] ":: CWGC:: The Ypres Salient". Second Passchendaele. Commonwealth War Graves Commission. n.d.. http://www.cwgc.org/ypres/ content.asp?id=252&menu=subsub. Retrieved on 2009-02-08. [68] Nicholson 325 [69] http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/canadaeuropa/brussels/passchendaele/battleen.asp [70] http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/ cef.htm [71] http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/media/photo/ passchendaele-memorial-plate References • Bean, C.E.W. (1941). The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914-1918: Volume IV: The A.I.F. in France 1917 (11th ed.). Sydney: Halstead Press Pty Limited. http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/ chapter.asp?volume=5. • Keegan, John The First World War. Pimlico, London, 1999. ISBN 0-7126-6645-1 • Nicholson, Gerald W. L. (1962). Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force 1914–1919. Ottawa: Queen’s Printer and Controller of Stationary. http://www.dnd.ca/dhh/collections/books/ engraph/ details_e.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=22&cat=7. • Terraine, John The Road to Passchendaele: The Flanders Offensive 1917, A Stud in Inevitability. Leo Cooper, London, 1984. ISBN 0-436-51732-9 • Travers, Tim The Killing Ground: The British Army, the Western Front & the Emergence of Modern War 1900-1918. 12 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Pen & Sword, London, 2003. ISBN 0-85052-964-9 • Wolff, Leon In Flanders Fields. Viking, New York, 1958 • Edmonds, James (1948). France and Belgium 1917. Vol II. 7 June - 10 November. Messines and Third Ypres (Passchendaele). London: Imperial War Museum and Battery Press. • Evans, Martin Marix Passchendaele: The Hollow Victory, 2005. ISBN 1-84415-368-1 Battle of Passchendaele • Nigel Cave, Passchendaele,Pen & Sword Books Ltd, 2007, ISBN 0850525586. Illustrated maps and then and now photographs. • Leach, Norman. Passchendaele – Canada’s Triumph and Tragedy on the Fields of Flanders. (Regina, Sask: Coteau Publishing, 2008) Author was the historian on the feature-length film "Passchendaele". • Leach, Norman S. (2008). "Passchendaele – Canada’s Other Vimy Ridge". Canadian Military Journal 9 (2). http://www.journal.dnd.ca/vo9/no2/ 09-leach-eng.asp. Retrieved on 2009-02-23. Further reading • Edwin Campion Vaughan’s Some Desperate Glory, Diary of a young officer who served in the battle. • Robin Prior’s and Trevor Wilson’s Passchendaele: The Untold Story (Yale University Press, New Haven & London, 1996) ISBN 0300072279 (pbk) ISBN 0300066929 (hdbk) includes the strategy and political dimension leading up to the battle. • Philip Warner, Passchendaele, Pen and Sword Books Ltd, 2005, ISBN 1844153053. A history critical of General Haig, written by a Senior Lecturer at Sandhurst Academy with many quotations from the memoirs of soldiers who were there. • Glyn Harper, Massacre at Passchendaele — The New Zealand Story, Harper Collins, 2000, ISBN 1-86950-342-2. Describes the battle of Passchendaele from the New Zealand perspective. • Winston Groom, A Storm in Flanders - The Ypres Salient, 1914-1918, Atlantic Monthly Press, 2002, ISBN0-87113-842-5. World War I Account of Tragedy and Triumph on the Western Front written by an American author. Oral histories • "Passchendaele" in Oral Histories of the First World War: Veterans 1914-1918 at Library and Archives Canada External links • Passchendaele Original reports from The Times • Battles: The Third Battle of Ypres, 1917 • Westhoek The great war in Flanders Fields — A war and peace experience. • Second Lieutenant Robert Riddel, Military Cross, 10th Battalion Argyll & Sutherland Highlanders, Passchendaele, 12 October 1917 • Guernsey students re-trace a soldier’s journey to Passchendaele for Radiowaves (2007) • Robert Hall "Uncovering the secrets of Ypres" 23 February 2007. BBC News, Belgium • The Battle of Passchendaele Day by day detailed description of battle (with maps). Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele" Categories: Battles of World War I involving Australia, Battles of World War I involving Canada, Battles of World War I involving France, Battles of World War I involving Germany, Battles of World War I involving New Zealand, Battles involving South Africa, Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom, Battles of the Western Front (World War I), Conflicts in 1917, Ypres, Passchendaele This page was last modified on 25 May 2009, at 00:01 (UTC). All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) taxdeductible nonprofit charity. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers 13