Information Processing Skills For Language Learning

INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILLS Introduction: • Information processing theories focus on how language is learned rather than the rules presumed to underlie it. Information processing can be divided into the processes of ……. • • • • 1) 2) 3) 4) ATTENTION AND DISCRIMINATION. ORGANIZATION. MEMORY. TRANSFER. ATTENTION AND DISCRIMINATION • Attention includes both awareness of learning situation and active cognitive processing. Language learners do not give equal weight to all sensory stimuli that are bestowed on them at any point in time. Attention plays an active role in tuning our system to process certain sources of information (the signal) and to ignore others (the noise). In other words, humans have choices about how to allocate their attention. • Attention allocation depends on atleast 2 things: • 1) the information variable • 2) The amount of sources (processing capacity) that can be allocated to the task. ( Snyder and Downey 1983) Organization: • The organization of incoming sensory information is important for later retrieval. Information is organized or “chunked” by category. Poor organization will quickly overload the storage capacity of the brain and hinder memory. It is theorized that memory capacity is fixed and thus the better memory results in more efficient use of the limited capacity. The lack of chunking hinders later recall, because it is more difficult unrelated bits of information. Two organizational strategies seem to predominate, mediational and associative. In mediational strategies a symbol forms a link to some information. For example, an image might facilitate recall of an event. In associative strategies, one symbol is linked to another, as in such common linkages as “men & ………” or shirt &……..”. WORKING MEMORY: • In order to be able to analyze language input, listeners need to hold it in memory while making sense of it. Then the actual words can be forgotten while the meaning is retained for participating in ongoing communication events. This temporary storage is called working memory or short-term memory (STM). • Lahey & Bloom (1994); explained how STM fits within the broader concept of working memory. In working memory, a part of the system is allocated to storage and a part to processing. Working memory has therefore limited capacity of storage. Working memory is an information processing system with limits on both storage and processing capacity. Cont… • Working memory models incorporate modality specific storage component. Baddeley (1986) called the auditory storage mechanism the articulatory loop and the visual storage mechanism the visualspatial scratchpad. • These 2 storage systems have a limited capacity and can only be used for storage. The other part of working memory is the processor component, called the central executor. It has greater flexibility and can be used either for storage (when the capacity of the usual storage is full) or for processing. Cont… • Toddlers learning language show the effects of working memory when they repeat selective parts of what others say to them. When an adult says “let’s go downstairs now and see what grandpa is doing” a 2 yr old might repeat “DOWNSTAIRS, SEE GRANDPA” this example illustrates two traits of normal language a normal language acquisition. • 1) the child has been able to hold relatively complex input in memory long enough to act on it( the storage component) and • 2) The child has acted on it (the central executer component). TRANSFER: • Transfer or generalization is the ability to apply previously learned material in solving similar but novel problems. The greater the similarity between the two, the greater the transfer. When the two are similar, generalization is called near transfer. When very dissimilar, it is called far transfer. • LEARNING STYLES: • Luria (1973, 1980) proposed a learning model. He described three major functional divisions of cognitive functions. • 1) arousal- an initial response by an organism to a given stimuli • 2) coding of information: translation of incoming stimulus energy into a unique neural code that the brain can process. • 3) planning & decision making: choosing between alternatives, selecting & rejecting available options. • Together, these 3 divisions represent emotional & effective aspects including motivations, coding of information, conscious & unconscious planning and decision making.( Das, Kirby & Jarman 1975). Sequential learning: • the sequential process involves step-by-step problem solving and analysis of the textual structure. Most material taught in the classroom setting is taught in this manner. Spelling lists are distributed for rote memorization, history is taught as a “sequence” of events and comprehension of a paragraph of information is assumed. A child possessing strong sequential skills will more easily remember these lists of spelling words, historical events & rules of grammar. Class- work, homework & exams usually follow this same pattern. Simultaneous learning: • Simultaneous or holistic problem solving involves the processing of many stimuli at a time including spatial, analogical & organizational processes. Children with well developed simultaneous problem solving skills have as advantage in rapidly learning the shapes of letters and spatial configuration of words during the early stages of reading and possess an enhanced processing ability necessary for understanding the main themes of stories. Unfortunately, children with a tendency towards simultaneous learning skills lose their advantage early in there education & are often lost in the typical classroom. Lessons are usually not designed with these skills & therefore, these students often present with difficulties in the classroom. • INFORMATION PROCESSING AND LANGUAGE DISORDERS: AUTISM • Autistic individuals typically have problems processing auditory information • Bauman & Kemper in 1994 has shown that an area in the limbic system – the hippocampus is responsible for sensory input as well as learning and memory. • Information is transferred from the senses to the hippocampus, where it is processed and then transferred to the area of the cerebral cortex for long-term storage. Since auditory information is processed in the hippocampus the information may not be properly transferred to LTM in autistic individuals. SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT AND INFORMATION PROCESSING: • There have been reports over the past years that SLI children have some sort of memory problems that may underlie their linguistic impairment. (Griffith 1972; Grahan 1980; Tallal & Piercy 1978). • SLI children’s immediate memory in comparison to children matched to chronological age, has been found to be impaired for the storage and recall of word strings (Cecl, Ringstrom & Lea 1981; Kail, Hale Leonard & Nippold 1984). • Ceci et al 1981 suggested that the impairment was due to “diminished semantic processing” thus they imply that the deficit is caused by the underlying linguistic deficit in the children. • Kirchner & Klatzky 1985, suggested that SLI children were less able to maintain and regenerate items in STM. They also found that the findings were due to “ Diminished Verbal Capacity”. Cont… • Some others suggested that the memory deficits in children with SLI constitute a more generalized temporal processing impairment. The research conducted by Talla and her colleagues pointed out to a generalized sequential processing deficit for detecting and remembering both auditory and visual stimuli produced in rapid sequence( Tallal 1980; Tallal & Piercy 1978; Tallal& Stark 1976). Semantic- Pragmatic Disorders: • Shaw-Ridley 1999 found that in monolingual SPD children exhibited an underlying attention and planning deficit which has been shown to manifest in poor organization of discourse and pragmatic, and social and communicative difficulties. INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY & ASSESSMENT: • Johnson and Myklebust (1967) introduced the idea of learning style into literature on assessment and intervention for learning difficulties. • They encouraged clinical identification of primarily auditory or primarily visual strengths and/or deficit children with language learning problems. • Specific processing skills were separated into “perceptual skills” such as attention and figureground discrimination and “language skills” such as verbal memory sequencing, integration and formulation • Central auditory processing (CAP) assessment (Kieth 1981,1986,Lasky & Katz 1983) are based on information processing model. All children with suspected language deficits should have at least as audiometric screening of their peripheral hearing. CAP models suggest that it is also important to consider the possible presence of impaired central auditory processes. Tallal & her colleagues (Merzenich et al 1996; Tallal et al 1996) recommended CAP assessment should be done to discriminate speech sounds. Cont… • Most assessments of information processes focus on language input, but some children with language impairment have deficits in word retrieval (Deckla & Rudel 1976; German 1979,1994). Children with reading and spelling deficits often have slow (latent) or inaccurate retrival (German 1989,1990,1991). Information processing & Intervention: Treatments designed to address other Central Auditory Processing Deficits: • These treatments often emphasize improving the loudness and clarity of input, rather than improving the processing mechanism per se. Such intervention might involve enhancing the signal input to make it easier to process with a system that is less than optimal. This treatment often employed the use of personal FM system, microphone and headset use in classrooms etc. Treatment for word retrieval deficits: • It takes 2 primary forms depending on the clinician’s assumptions about levels of “processing-storage elaboration” and “retrieval activities”. If one assumes that semantic network elaborations are inadequate, intervention may focus on helping clients to create more elaborate associative networks for storing related words. If one assumes that the deficits centers around retrieval processes per se, intervention may target on retrieval activities to build strategies for word finding within naming or discourse activities. Intervention aimed at improving the temporal sequential processing abilities • Computer programs of Tallal Merzenich 1996 are based on information processing theory. They build on the premise that perceptual processing deficits involving speech sound detection & sequencing can result in broader deficits involving higher order skills. The theory suggests that helping a child to overcome deficits in perceptual capabilities will make it possible for the child to acquire other aspects of language normally • Few programs that work on auditory processing, using software programs are • Fast forward • Train time • Sound smart • Fast Forward by Locu Tour comprise of a series of software programs training exercises, presented as a game that use levels of acoustically modified speech to re-train the auditory system. The exercises are designed to help children recognize word sound first in isolation, then in groups of sounds, words and finally sentences. The exercise schedule is intense and consists 100 minutes per day, five days per week, for 4 to 8 weeks and is a home base program that requires professional and parent supervision. • Train time is a CD-ROM program designed to capture the learner’s attention and then teach various skills such as auditory comprehension, reading spelling, speech and problem solving and attention skills. Train time was developed by a speech pathologist for children or adults with respective & expressive language difficulties and have a keen interest in trains. The primary educational objective of Train Time is to gain attention. There are 5 different kinds of attention training addressed in this program: focused, sustained, selective, divided Sound Smart: by Joseph A Sanford & Ann Turner. • For auditory cognitive training & Early Learning. • Sound Smart was designed by a clinical psychologist and a psychiatrist to help improve phonemic awareness, listening skills, working memory, mental processing speed and selfcontrol. These game-like brain training exercises speak to the user in a realistic human voice, making the individual feel as if they are playing with a real person who encourages, praises and challenges them to do their best. • Thank You…