Deviance in the Olympics
Core Text (p85 - p89)
What you need to learn:
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Deviance and cheating in sport Reasons and methods Original idea of sportsmanship replaced by concept of gamesmanship Examples of deviance, especially the problem of drugs The IOC’s role in international drug control
1. Deviance & cheating in sport: What is deviance?
Can be defined as any behaviour designed to gain unfair advantage by means of: Gamesmanship Deliberate infringement of the rules Interfering with equipment Knowingly taking banned substances for the purpose of gaining unfair advantage Being involved in an act, the prime purpose of which is to gain an unfair advantage over one’s opponents
Contd.
“Lombardian ethic” - “win at all costs”, developed from American football coach Vince Lombardi in the 1950’s. Defined as the mould casting point at which a decline in sportsmanship occurred.
Eastern Bloc countries used sport for political purposes, after the division of Europe during the WWII. Deviant behaviour as it was systematic doping of athletes which was therefore deviant behaviour.
Other forms of deviance?
Bribery Corruption Vote rigging – IOC Salt Lake City Hooliganism – football matches Tampering equipment – scratching cricket balls
2. Reasons and Methods
Categories of deviance: Institutional - East German Group specific - swimmers Individual - sprinter Voluntary Co-operative Enforced - East German
Reasons for different sporting philosophies
Public schools adopted sport for moral and recreational reasons. It contained a code of honour, good behaviour, responsibility, loyalty and Christian virtue (Charles Kingsley) Any deviance from the moral code makes an activity “non-sporting” Considering this, much of what passes as sport today may be considered and entertainment
Why does deviance occur?
Increased commercialism so increased pressure on players/individuals to win Sponsorship deals may be lost if no success Enforced e.g. Mussolini 1934 Italy World Cup Final There’s now an increase in the amount of medical support which athletes receive Drug companies put huge amounts of money into developing drugs and supplements in comparison to the amount put into drug detection and testing There’s a delay between drugs being manufactured and then appearing on the banned list
Contd.
The athlete’s need to achieve world records may require drugs There’s a history of drug abuse in communist countries e.g. East Germany’s systematic doping of athletes Rewards for winners are so good that’s it’s worth the gamble of detection for the athletes a very narrow line between what is legal and what isn’t – increased use of supplements makes this harder IOC has no control over out of competition testing Problems of masking presence of drugs which makes detection harder as clean during competition
Contd.
There such a fine line between success and failure that athletes look to gain whatever advantage they can Still widespread use of natural drugs i.e. testosterone, as they are difficult to detect
Who might be involved in deviant behaviour?
Participants Officials – referees (bribed/under pressure) Organisers – fixing draws Associated members of the team – coaches, nutritionists, promoters
Normal distribution approach
Coakley 1993 Normal distribution of behaviour which falls into a range of acceptances. Deviance occurs when behaviour falls outside this range. Can be under OR over-conformity (see Fig 13.5 p346)
Under-conformity and negative deviancy
Athletes reject the rules to an extreme extent e.g. cheating/deliberate harming of another player Easy to control with appropriate punishment for rule violation e.g. deliberate foul in football, inside the penalty area = penalty kick
Over-conformity and positive deviancy
Athlete goes too far in conforming with the rules e.g. obsessive training, drugs, participate despite injury and praised Athletes takes risks to conform Harder to control
Deviance in sport
“on the field’ deviance - violations of norms that occur while preparing or participating in sports events” Coakley 1993 Can be caused by pressure of media coverage or commercialism, or pressure to win Similar behaviour outside of sport would result in arrest e.g. Cantona’s high tackle
3. The original ideal of sportsmanship replaced by the concept of gamesmanship.
What is Sportsmanship?
Public school ethos: better to lose honourably then to win by cheating This view infiltrated society and the wider Empire and Commonwealth Today the belief is “ you get away with whatever you can” The potential rewards for success often outweigh any such moral considerations
Sportsmanship replaced by gamesmanship
Sportsmanship: the intention to compete within the framework of the rules and the intended spirit of the rules Gamesmanship: the intention to compete to the limit allowed by the rules - and beyond, if that is achievable without penalty Essential difference between the two philosophies; “win at all costs” vs “the recreational ethic” (Lombardian vs. Counterculture)
“Sport is no longer the hobby horse of the wealthy but the vehicle on which athletes ride to work”
Contd.
The following message appears on the scoreboard at every Olympic Games: “The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well.”
Deviant Behaviour
Fraud - against who? Is it legal? Some forms are, others are not. Should there be a separate competition for those who wish to explore the boundaries of performance?
Institutional Deviance
Former Soviet governments supported huge programmes of abuse Designed purely to win gold medals, enhance their countries image. Gold medals - seen as victory for the way of life of the Eastern Bloc over a decadent and corrupt capitalist West
Contd.
East German female athletes, gymnasts and swimmers (Montreal Olympics 1976 - “they looked like men”) - forced to become pregnant, have abortion and gain from the extra vitamins produced in the body 1989 - found that the German democratic republic (GDR) had a state sponsored plan which had ordered the systematic doping of athletes in the 70’s and 80’s Current concerns over People’s Republic of China - female swimmers and track and field athletes
Contd.
The Olympic games brings together 10,000 elite competitors from around the world - and a host of officials trying to catch drug cheats. But is it really so wrong for an athlete to use performance-enhancing substances? Lincoln Allison (sports academic) argues that those who strive to be the best should do so by any means necessary
4. Examples of deviance
David Jenkins Former British 400m record-holder Supplied banned substances to athletes Many were illegal substances. He was sent to prison in the US
Contd.
Justin Gatlin - world and Olympic 100m champion Tested positive April 2006 Synthetic testosterone and steroids Banned for 8 years Maintains his innocence
Contd. – Marian Jones
American sprinter who won 5 gold medals at Sydney 2000 June 2006 tested positive for EPO Cleared when 2nd sample was negative Ex-husband CJ Hunter (a confessed steroid user) claimed he had seen her inject drugs into her stomach 2007 - found guilty and stripped of medals. Sent to jail for 6 months
Marian Jones contd.
Jailed for lying about her use of performanceenhancing drugs and her role in a money laundering scheme that included her coach, her agent and another disgraced track star, Tim Montgomery, father of her first child. Jones is all but broke, according to her lawyers. She also has lost every semblance of the respect that came from her achievements as an athlete, achievements enhanced by her charisma, infectious smile, communication skills, steroids and other banned drugs.
Tonya Harding
reputation plummeted after criminal activity won the U.S. Figure Skating Championships twice and placed second in the 1991 World Championships. became notorious for her part in the conspiracy to harm competitor Nancy Kerrigan at a practice session during the 1994 U.S. Figure Skating Championships Harding's ex-husband hired a man to strike Kerrigan on the knee. Harding won that event, while Kerrigan's injury forced her withdrawal. After Harding admitted to helping to cover up the attack, the USFSA and United States Olympic Committee initiated proceedings to remove her from the 1994 Olympic team, but Harding retained her place after threatening legal action. She finished eighth while Kerrigan, recovered from her injuries, finished second.
Types of doping
EPO: boost oxygen levels in muscles to stave off exhaustion. Thickens blood and increases the risk of heart attacks HGH: (Human Growth Hormone). Synthetic version of protein and stimulates muscles and bone growth. Boosts muscle mass. Very hard to detect. Can lead to swelling of soft tissue, high blood pressure and increased sweating
Contd.
Blood doping: athletes takes out a pint of their own blood. Just before a race, they transfuse this blood. Provides a massive boost to their red blood cells so helps get them more oxygen to their muscles. Testosterone: type of steroid to boost muscle development, strength and endurance. Masking agents: used to disguise presence of other drugs
Notable doping excuses
Nobody, it seems, 'knowingly' takes banned substances. Some of sports history's best doping explanations
Sprinter JUSTIN GATLIN: The old masseuse excuse Justin Gatlin has always been an ardent advocate of drug-free sport, so it came as a big surprise when the reigning 100-metre champion tested positive for testosterone. When asked to explain the failed test, Trevor Graham, Gatlin's coach, insisted it was a setup. Graham told the Washington Post that a masseuse with a grudge rubbed a testosterone cream into Gatlin's legs. Gatlin, according to Graham, believed the "cream" was nothing but harmless lotion. Coincidentally, Graham was a key figure in the downfall of the BALCO steroiddistribution ring. One of BALCO's chief products was "The Cream," a steroid balm.
Contd. - Snowboarder ROSS REBAGLIATI:
Up in Smoke In the winter of 1998 Canada's Ross Regabliati was stripped of his Olympic gold medal after a drug test found traces of THC the chemical in marijuana that makes you feel good - in the snowboarder's urine. In a defence that would have made Bill Clinton proud, Regabliati claimed the drug traces came from second-hand smoke he consumed while partying with marijuana puffing buddies during a pre-Olympic shindig in Whistler, B.C. After much kafuffle, Regabliati did get his medal back. He also promised to "change his lifestyle" and wear "a gas mask" to future parties.
Tennis player PETR KORDA:
Evil Veal Petr Korda has a message for athletes: fear the cows. Just months after winning the Australian Open in 1998, Korda tested positive for the banned substance nandrolone after a match at Wimbledon. The Czech tennis player claimed he failed the test because he had eaten too much nandrolone-fattened veal. Tennis officials said Korda's claim was a load of bull, pointing out that Korda would have to eat 40 calves a day for 20 years to achieve such high levels of nandrolone in his body.
5. The IOC’s role in international drug control
“Doping is cheating. Doping is akin to death. Death physically and certain tragic cases in recent years have shown. But also death spiritually and intellectually… And finally death morally, by excluding oneself de facto from the rules of conduct required by all human society.” Samaranch
Contd.
First drug related death: Knud Jensen 1960 Rome - Danish cyclist IOC code of eligibility “requires all competitors to abide by it’s requirements, including testing fro banned substances” A list of both banned and allowed substances are published and updated regularly
3 Principles of IOC’s antidoping
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The protection of the health of the athletes Respect for medical and sports ethics Ensuring an equal chance for everyone during competition
IOC Medical Commission
Establishes all the routines and practical aspects of collecting urine samples and ensuring that they are securely transported, sealed and numbered 1994 - testing procedures have been expanded to included blood as well as urine
contd
International sporting bodies are under pressure to adopt the IOC’s code. Also want random testing - in and out of season Battle with chemists - always one jump ahead of testers, making drugs which are hard to detect
WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency)
The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) is an independent foundation created through a collective initiative led by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). It was set up on November 10, 1999 in Lausanne, Switzerland to coordinate the fight against drugs in sport. Its current chairman is Richard Pound, a former IOC vice-president and outspoken opponent of drugs in sport. In 2001, WADA voted to move its headquarters to Montreal, Canada.
Contd.
Initially funded by the International Olympic Committee, WADA now receives only half of its budgetary requirements from them, with the other half coming from various governments throughout the world.
Contd.
The agency works to help individual sporting federations implement testing procedures in the fields of education and research. It also produces a list of prohibited substances that athletes are not allowed to take.[1][2]In 2004, the World Anti-Doping Code was implemented by sports organizations prior to the Olympic Games in Athens, Greece, standardizing the rules and regulations governing anti-doping across all sports and all countries for the first time. http://www.wada-ama.org
Examples of exam questions:
Some athletes continue to misuse drugs whilst preparing for and participating in the Olympic Games. Discuss the reasons for this.