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Skyscraper
Skyscraper
Taipei 101 is the world’s tallest completed skyscraper. Home Insurance Building (1885) is considered the "first skyscraper". The structural definition of the word skyscraper was refined later by architectural historians, based on engineering developments of the 1880s that had enabled construction of tall multi-storey buildings. This definition was based on the steel skeleton—as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicago’s Monadnock Building. Philadelphia’s City Hall, completed in 1901, still holds claim as the world’s tallest loadbearing masonry structure at 167 m (548 ft). The steel frame developed in stages of increasing self-sufficiency, with several buildings in Chicago and New York advancing the technology that allowed the steel frame to carry a building on its own. Today, however, many of the tallest skyscrapers are built almost entirely with reinforced concrete. Pumps and storage tanks maintain water pressure at the top of skyscrapers. A loose convention in the United States and Europe now draws the lower limit of a skyscraper at 150 meters (500 ft).[1] A skyscraper taller than 300 meters (984 ft) may be referred to as supertall. Shorter buildings are still sometimes referred to as skyscrapers if they appear to dominate their surroundings. The somewhat arbitrary term skyscraper should not be confused with the slightly less
Burj Dubai is currently under construction and will be the tallest skyscraper in the world, dominating all height-related ranking criteria. A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building. There is no official definition nor height above which a building may clearly be classified as a skyscraper. Most cities define the term empirically; even a building of 80 meters (262 feet) may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes above its built environment and changes the overall skyline.
Definition
The word "skyscraper" originally was a nautical term referring to a tall mast or its main sail on a sailing ship. The term was first applied to buildings in the late 19th century as a result of public amazement at the tall buildings being built in Chicago and New York City. The traditional definition of a skyscraper began with the "first skyscraper", a steel-framed ten-storey building. Chicago’s now demolished ten-storey steel-framed
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arbitrary term highrise, defined by the Emporis Standards Committee as "...a multistorey structure with at least 12 floors or 35 meters (115 feet) in height."[2] Some structural engineers define a highrise as any vertical construction for which wind is a more significant load factor than earthquake or weight. Note that this criterion fits not only high rises but some other tall structures, such as towers. The word skyscraper often carries a connotation of pride and achievement. The skyscraper, in name and social function, is a modern expression of the age-old symbol of the world center or axis mundi: a pillar that connects earth to heaven and the four compass directions to one another.[3]
Skyscraper
History
Before the 19th century
The Great Pyramid of Giza, circa 2560 BC, was 146 metres tall and its height was unsurpassed until at least the 14th century AD.
The Two Towers of Bologna in the 12th century reached 97.2 metres in height. elevators. Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare, as having great numbers of stairs to climb was impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually insufficient to supply running water above 50 m (164 ft). The tallest building in ancient times was the Great Pyramid of Giza in ancient Egypt, which was 146 metres (480 ft) tall and was
The 16th-century city of Shibam consisted entirely of over 500 high-rise tower houses. Modern skyscrapers are built with materials such as steel, glass, reinforced concrete and granite, and routinely utilize mechanical equipment such as water pumps and
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built in the 26th century BC. Its height was not surpassed for thousands of years, possibly until the 14th century AD with the construction of Lincoln Cathedral (though its height is disputed),[4] which in turn was not surpassed in height until the Washington Monument in 1884. However, being uninhabited buildings, none of these buildings actually complies with the definition of a skyscraper. High-rise apartment buildings already flourished in antiquity: ancient Roman insulae in Rome and other imperial cities reached up to 10 and more stories,[5] some with more than 200 stairs.[6] Several emperors, beginning with Augustus (r. 30 BC-14 AD), attempted to establish limits of 20-25 m for multistorey buildings, but met with only limited success.[7][8] The lower floors were typically occupied by either shops or wealthy families, while the upper stories were rented out to the lower classes.[5] Surviving Oxyrhynchus Papyri indicate that seven-storey buildings even existed in provincial towns, such as in 3rd century AD Hermopolis in Roman Egypt.[9] The skylines of many important medieval cities had large numbers of high-rise urban towers. Wealthy families built these towers for defensive purposes and as status symbols. The residential Towers of Bologna in the 12th century, for example, numbered between 80 to 100 at a time, the largest of which (known as the "Two Towers") rise to 97.2 metres (319 ft). In Florence, a law of 1251 decreed that all urban buildings should be reduced to a height of less than 26 m, the regulation immediately put into effect.[10] Even mediumsized towns at the time such as San Gimignano are known to have featured 72 towers up to 51 m height.[10] The medieval Egyptian city of Fustat housed many high-rise residential buildings, which Al-Muqaddasi in the 10th century described as resembling minarets. Nasir Khusraw in the early 11th century described some of them rising up to 14 stories, with roof gardens on the top floor complete with ox-drawn water wheels for irrigating them.[11] Cairo in the 16th century had high-rise apartment buildings where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants.[12] An early example of a city consisting entirely of high-rise housing is the 16th-century city of Shibam in Yemen.
Skyscraper
Shibam was made up of over 500 tower houses,[13] each one rising 5 to 11 storeys high,[14] with each floor being an apartment occupied by a single family. The city was built in this way in order to protect it from Bedouin attacks.[13] Shibam still has the tallest mudbrick buildings in the world, with many of them over 100 feet (30 m) high,[15] and the tallest of them (a minaret) standing at over 175 feet (53 m).[16] An early modern example of high-rise housing was in 17th-century Edinburgh, Scotland, where a defensive city wall defined the boundaries of the city. Due to the restricted land area available for development, the houses increased in height instead. Buildings of 11 stories were common, and there are records of buildings as high as 14 stories. Many of the stone-built structures can still be seen today in the old town of Edinburgh. The oldest iron framed building in the world is The Flaxmill (also locally known as the "Maltings"), in Shrewsbury, England. Built in 1797, it is seen as the "grandfather of skyscrapers”, since its fireproof combination of cast iron columns and cast iron beams developed into the modern steel frame that made modern skyscrapers possible. Unfortunately, it lies derelict and needs much investment to keep it standing. On 31 March 2005, it was announced that English Heritage would buy the Flaxmill so that it could be redeveloped.
Early skyscrapers
The first skyscraper was the ten-storey Home Insurance Building in Chicago, built in 1884–1885. While its height is not considered very impressive today, it was at that time. The architect, Major William Le Baron Jenney, created the first load-bearing structural frame. In this building, a steel frame supported the entire weight of the walls, instead of load-bearing walls carrying the weight of the building, which was the usual method. This development led to the "Chicago skeleton" form of construction. After Jenney’s accomplishment the sky was truly the limit as far as building was concerned. Sullivan’s Wainwright Building building in St. Louis, 1891, was the first steel-framed building with soaring vertical bands to emphasize the height of the building, and is, therefore, considered by some to be the first true skyscraper.
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Skyscraper
successively taller buildings claiming the title of "world’s tallest" in the 1920s and early 1930s, culminating with the completion of the Chrysler Building in 1930 and the Empire State Building in 1931, the world’s tallest building for forty years. The first completed World Trade Center tower became the world’s tallest building in 1972 for two years. That changed with the completion of the Sears Tower in Chicago in 1974, which became the world’s tallest building for several decades.
Modern skyscrapers
Built in 1931, The Empire State Building in New York City is one of the oldest, yet tallest skyscrapers. Most early skyscrapers emerged in the land-strapped areas of Chicago, London, and New York toward the end of the 19th century. A land boom in Melbourne, Australia between 1888-1891 spurred the creation of a significant number of early skyscrapers, though none of these were steel reinforced and few remain today. Height limits and fire restrictions were later introduced. London builders soon found building heights limited due to a complaint from Queen Victoria, rules that continued to exist with few exceptions until the 1950s. Concerns about aesthetics and fire safety had likewise hampered the development of skyscrapers across continental Europe for the first half of the twentieth century (with the notable exceptions of the 26-storey Boerentoren in Antwerp, Belgium, built in 1932, and the 31-storey Torre Piacentini in Genoa, Italy, built in 1940). After an early competition between New York City and Chicago for the world’s tallest building, New York took the lead by 1895 with the completion of the American Surety Building, leaving New York with the title of tallest building for many years. New York City developers competed among themselves, with
The iconic World Trade Center twin towers were destroyed in 2001. From the 1930s onwards, skyscrapers also began to appear in Latin America (São Paulo, Caracas, Mexico City) and in Asia (Tokyo, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila, Singapore, Mumbai, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Taipei, Bangkok). Immediately after World War II, the Soviet Union planned eight massive skyscrapers dubbed "Stalin Towers" for Moscow; seven of these were eventually built. The rest of Europe also slowly began to permit skyscrapers, starting with Madrid, in Spain, during the 1950s. Finally, skyscrapers also
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Skyscraper
The Sears Tower in Chicago was the world’s tallest building from 1974 to 1998, and remains the tallest in the United States.
Tower 2 of the International Finance Centre in Hong Kong is one of the 20 tallest buildings in the world.
The Petronas Twin Towers, the world’s tallest twin towers.
The Commerzbank Tower in Frankfurt/Germany is the tallest completed skyscraper in the European Union.
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Skyscraper
skyscraper revolution in terms of multiple structural systems."[19] His central innovation in skyscraper design and construction was the idea of the "tube" structural system, including the "framed tube", "trussed tube", and "bundled tube".[20] These systems allowed far greater economic efficiency,[21] and also allowed efficient skyscrapers to take on various shapes, no longer needing to be box-shaped.[22] Over the next fifteen years, many towers were built by Khan and the "Second Chicago School",[23] including the massive 442-meter (1,451-foot) Sears Tower,[24] leading to its current number of buildings over 492 ft. Chicago is currently undergoing an epic construction boom that will greatly add to the city’s skyline. Since 2000, at least 40 buildings at a minimum of 50 stories high have been built.[25] The Chicago Spire, Trump International Hotel and Tower, Waterview Tower, Mandarin Oriental Tower, 29-39 South LaSalle, Park Michigan, and Aqua are some of the more notable projects currently underway in the city that invented the skyscraper. Chicago, Hong Kong, and New York City, otherwise known as the "the big three," are recognized in most architectural circles as having the most compelling skylines in the world. Other large cities that are currently experiencing major building booms involving skyscrapers include Shanghai in China, Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, and Miami, which now is third in the United States.[26]
30 St Mary Axe in London, United Kingdom is an example of a modern environmentally friendly skyscraper. began to be constructed in cities of Africa, the Middle East and Oceania (mainly Australia) from the late 1950s. No city in the world has more completed individual free-standing buildings over 492 ft (150 m) than New York City.[17]. However, Hong Kong has the most in the entire world[18] if one counts individually the multiple towers that rise from a common podium (as Emporis does), in buildings that rise several stories as a single structure before splitting into two or more columns of floors. The number of skyscrapers in Hong Kong will continue to increase, due to a prolonged highrise building boom and high demand for office and housing space in the area. A new building complex in Kowloon contains several mixed-use towers (hotel-shops-residential), one of which, the International Commerce Center, will be 118 stories tall. In the early 1960s structural engineer Fazlur Khan realized that the rigid steel frame structure that had "dominated tall building design and construction so long was not the only system fitting for tall buildings", marking "the beginning of a new era of
History of tallest skyscrapers
At the beginning of the 20th century, New York City was a center for the Beaux-Arts architectural movement, attracting the talents of such great architects as Stanford White and Carrere and Hastings. As better construction and engineering technology became available as the century progressed, New York and Chicago became the focal point of the competition for the tallest building in the world. Each city’s striking skyline has been composed of numerous and varied skyscrapers, many of which are icons of 20th century architecture: • The , standing 285 ft (87 m) high, was one of the tallest buildings in the city upon its completion in 1902, made possible by its steel skeleton. It was one of the first buildings designed with a steel framework, and to achieve this height
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with other construction methods of that time would have been very difficult. • The , a neo-Gothic "Cathedral of Commerce" overlooking City Hall, was designed by Cass Gilbert. At 792 feet (241 m), it became the world’s tallest building upon its completion in 1913, an honor it retained until 1930, when it was overtaken by 40 Wall Street. • That same year, the took the lead as the tallest building in the world, scraping the sky at 1,046 feet (319 m).[27] Designed by William Van Alen, an art deco masterpiece with an exterior crafted of brick,[28] the Chrysler Building continues to be a favorite of New Yorkers to this day.[29] • The , the first building to have more than 100 floors (it has 102), was completed the following year. It was designed by Shreve, Lamb and Harmon in the contemporary Art Deco style. The tower takes its name from the nickname of New York State. Upon its completion in 1931, it took the top spot as tallest building, and at 1,472 feet (448 m) to the very top of the antenna, towered above all other buildings until 1973. • The was completed in 1973 and consisted of two tall towers and several smaller buildings. For a short time, the first of the two towers was the world’s tallest building. Upon completion, the towers stood for twenty-eight years, until the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks destroyed the structures. Various governmental entities, financial firms, and law firms called the towers home. • The was completed in 1974, one year after the World Trade Center, and surpassed it as the world’s tallest building. It was the first building to employ the "bundled tube" structural system, designed by Fazlur Khan.[22] The building was not surpassed in height until the Petronas Towers were constructed in 1998, but remained the tallest in some categories until the Burj Dubai, currently under construction, surpassed it in all categories. It is currently the tallest building in the United States. Momentum in setting records passed from the United States to other nations in 1997 with the opening of the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The record for world’s tallest building remained in Asia with the opening of Taipei 101 in
Skyscraper
Taipei, Taiwan, in 2004. A number of architectural records, including that of the world’s tallest building, will reside in the Middle East from 2009 with the opening of the Burj Dubai in Dubai, UAE. This geographical transition is accompanied by a change in approach to skyscraper design. For much of the twentieth century large buildings such as the Sears Tower and World Trade Center (New York) took the form of simple geometrical shapes. This reflected the "international style" or modernist philosophy shaped by Bauhaus architects early in the century. By the 1990s skyscraper design began to exhibit postmodernist influences. The newest record setters, though modern, incorporate traditional architectural features associated with the part of the world where they stand. Design of Petronas Twin Towers is based on the transformation of simple but elegant Islamic geometric principles, Taipei 101 recalls the traditions of Asian pagoda architecture even as the Burj Dubai incorporates motifs from traditional Arabic art, reflecting the cultural influences of their environment. For current rankings of skyscrapers by height, see List of tallest buildings in the world. The following list measures height of the roof. The more common gauge is the highest architectural detail; such ranking would have included Petronas Towers, built in 1998. See List of tallest buildings in the world for details. Source: emporis.com
Today
Today, skyscrapers are an increasingly common sight where land is scarce, as in the centres of big cities, because they provide such a high ratio of rentable floor space per unit area of land. But they are built not just for economy of space. Like temples and palaces of the past, skyscrapers are considered symbols of a city’s economic power. Not only do they define the skyline, they help to define the city’s identity.
Supertall towers
An interesting phenomena in the design of tall buildings has emerged recently in the Middle East, with new, extremely challenging proposals for supertall towers of heights
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Built Building 1873 Equitable Life Building 1889 Auditorium Building 1890 New York World Building 1894 Manhattan Life Insurance Building 1899 Park Row Building City New York Country Roof United States United States United States United States United States 142 ft 43 m Floors Pinnacle 8
Skyscraper
Current status Demolished
Chicago
269 ft
82 m
17
349 ft
106 m
Standing
New York City New York City
309 ft
94 m
20
349 ft
106 m
Demolished
348 ft
106 m
18
Demolished
New York City
391 ft
119 m
30
Standing
1901 Philadelphia Philadelphia UnCity Hall ited States 1908 Singer Building 1909 Met Life Tower 1913 Woolworth Building 1930 40 Wall Street 1930 Chrysler Building 1931 Empire State Building 1972 World Trade Center (North tower) 1974 Sears Tower 2003 Taipei 101 New York City New York City New York City New York City New York City New York City New York City United States United States United States United States United States United States United States
511 ft
155.8 m 9
548 ft
167 m
Standing
612 ft
187 m
47
Demolished
700 ft
213 m
50
Standing
792 ft
241 m
57
Standing
70
927 ft
283 m
Standing
925 ft
282 m
77
1,046 ft 319 m
Standing
1,250 ft 381 m
102
1,472 ft 449 m
Standing
1,368 ft 417 m
110
1,727 ft 526.3 m Destroyed
Chicago
United States Taiwan
1,451 ft 442 m
108
1,729 ft 527 m
Standing
Taipei City
1,474 ft 448 m
101
1,671 ft 509 m
Standing
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
2009 Burj Dubai Dubai Un2,684 ft 818 m ited Arab Emirates 162
Skyscraper
2,684 ft 818 m Incomplete
Nighttime rendition of Nakheel Tower. supertall towers are different from what have been normally identified as skyscrapers, as they create exceptional challenges and, arguably, represent a new architectural [33] paradigm. An artist’s rendering of 1 World Trade Center, currently under construction in New York. exceeding one kilometer, such as Nakheel Tower[30], to be built in Dubai of the United Arab Emirates. With its announcement, the developer, Nakheel, intends to overtake the tallest structure in the world currently under construction in the same city of Dubai: the Burj Dubai. Other supertall towers are also proposed as new iconic buildings in the Middle East such as The Mile Tower to be built in Jeddah, KSA[31][32] and Burj Mubarak Al Kabir in Kuwait. These distinctively
Future skyscrapers
The following skyscrapers are either approved or due to be completed in the near future: • Construction of the is underway in Dubai. Its exact height is expected to be 818 m (2,684 ft) high, making it the tallest building in the world. The Burj Dubai is due to be completed in September 2009.[34] • Construction of the started in 2009, and when finished it will be the second tallest free-standing structure in the world with a
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Skyscraper
• Construction has started for a 610 m (2,001 ft) skyscraper in Chicago, estimated to be completed in 2012[41]. The Chicago Spire, with 150 floors, will be the second tallest residential building in the world. Designed by Santiago Calatrava, it will also hold the title of North America’s tallest free-standing structure.[42] • is now under construction and is the tallest tower comprising the redevelopment of the site of the former World Trade Center following the attacks of September 11, 2001.[43] Its antenna will reach a height of 541.4 m (1,776 ft),[43] a height representing the year of the United States Declaration of Independence. • The Port Tower is a building planned for Karachi, the financial capital of Pakistan, with the collaboration of local and foreign investors, in association with the Karachi Port Trust. When completed, the new structure will be 1,947 ft (593 m) high. The height of the tower has a special significance, representing the year Pakistan gained independence. • The is a building planned for Hyderabad, India. At 450 m (1,476 ft) it would be the tallest building in South Asia upon completion in 2010.[44] • The 318 m (1,043 ft) in Paris La Défense, scheduled to be completed in 2011,[45] is an entirely green building office skyscraper that is set to be the tallest building in Paris and in the European Union.[45] • Construction of the , also known as the Shard of Glass or London Bridge Tower, started in March 2009.[46][47]. At 310 m (1,017 ft), it is set to be the tallest building in London and the United Kingdom and the tallest in the European Union.[48]
An artist’s rendering of Russia Tower. height of 665 meters, it will be located in Manila bay near Mall of ASIA,by the project of PAGCOR. • Construction of the started on 29 November 2008.[35] The tower will be 632 m (2,073 ft) high and have 127 floors.[36][37] The building will feature a glass curtain wall and nine indoor gardens when it is completed in 2014.[38][39] • Construction has started for a skyscraper in Moscow to be completed in 2012. The , standing at 612 m (2,008 ft)[40] with 118 floors, will be the tallest building in Europe when completed. It will also be the tallest naturally ventilated building in the world.[40]
Sustainability
The skyscraper as a concept is a product of the industrialized age, made possible by cheap energy and raw materials. The amount of steel, concrete and glass needed to construct a skyscraper is vast, and these materials represent a great deal of embodied energy. Tall skyscrapers are very heavy, which means that they must be built on a sturdier foundation than would be required for shorter, lighter buildings. Building materials must
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also be lifted to the top of a skyscraper during construction, requiring more energy than would be necessary at lower heights. Furthermore, a skyscraper consumes a lot of electricity because potable and non-potable water must be pumped to the highest occupied floors, skyscrapers are usually designed to be mechanically ventilated, elevators are generally used instead of stairs, and natural lighting cannot be utilized in rooms far from the windows and the windowless spaces such as elevators, bathrooms and stairwells. Despite these costs, the size of skyscrapers allows for high-density work and living spaces, reducing the amount of land given over to human development. Mass transit and commercial transport are economically and environmentally more efficient when serving high-density development than suburban or rural development. Also, the total energy expended towards waste disposal and climate control is relatively lower for a given number of people occupying a skyscraper than that same number of people occupying modern housing. However the city of Paris, France has almost the population density of Manhattan, New York, despite having just a few tall buildings.
Skyscraper
[2] Data Standards: Real Estate A high-rise building is defined as a building 35 meters or greater in height [3] Penza State University of Architecture and Construction; Before The Workshop (1) Tower [4] The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Cathedral Church Of LINCOLN, by A.F. KENDRICK, B.A [5] ^ Gregory S. Aldrete: "Daily Life in the Roman City: Rome, Pompeii and Ostia", 2004, ISBN 9780313331749, p.79f. [6] Martial, Epigrams, 27 [7] Strabo, 5.3.7 [8] Alexander G. McKay: Römische Häuser, Villen und Paläste, Feldmeilen 1984, ISBN 3761105851 p. 231 [9] Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 2719, in: Katja Lembke, Cäcilia Fluck, Günter Vittmann: Ägyptens späte Blüte. Die Römer am Nil, Mainz 2004, ISBN 3-8053-3276-9, p.29 [10] ^ Werner Müller: "dtv-Atlas Baukunst I. Allgemeiner Teil: Baugeschichte von Mesopotamien bis Byzanz", 14th ed., 2005, ISBN 978-3423030205, p.345 [11] Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1992), Islamic Architecture in Cairo, Brill Publishers, p. 6, ISBN 90 04 09626 4 [12] Mortada, Hisham (2003), Traditional Islamic principles of built environment, Routledge, p. viii, ISBN 0700717005 [13] ^ Old Walled City of Shibam, UNESCO [14] Helfritz, Hans (April 1937), "Land without shade", Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society 24 (2): 201–16 [15] Shipman, J. G. T. (June 1984), "The Hadhramaut", Asian Affairs 15 (2): 154–62, doi:10.1080/ 03068378408730145 [16] Pamela Jerome, Giacomo Chiari, Caterina Borelli (1999), "The Architecture of Mud: Construction and Repair Technology in the Hadhramaut Region of Yemen", APT Bulletin 30 (2-3): 39–48 [44], doi:10.2307/1504639 [17] List of Tallest skyscrapers in New York City [18] List of Tallest skyscrapers in Hong Kong [19] Mir M. Ali, Kyoung Sun Moon, "Structural developments in tall buildings: current trends and future prospects", Architectural Science Review (September 2007), http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/ summary_0286-32962093_ITM, retrieved on 2008-12-10
Quotations
"What is the chief characteristic of the tall office building? It is lofty. It must be tall. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and pride of exaltation must be in it. It must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exaltation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line." —Louis Sullivan’s The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered (1896)
References
[1] Skyscraper News (December 2007). "Huge New Rogers Skyscraper Proposed" (HTML). http://www.skyscrapernews.com. http://www.skyscrapernews.com/ news.php?ref=1244. Retrieved on 2007-12-03.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
[20] Ali, Mir M. (2001), "Evolution of Concrete Skyscrapers: from Ingalls to Jin mao", Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 1 (1): 2–14, http://www.ejse.org/Archives/Fulltext/ 200101/01/20010101.htm, retrieved on 2008-11-30 [21] Alfred Swenson & Pao-Chi Chang (2008). "Building construction: High-rise construction since 1945". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/topic/83859/buildingconstruction/60143/High-riseconstruction-since-1945#toc60143. Retrieved on 2008-12-09. [22] ^ "Khan, Fazlur Rahman". Banglapedia. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/ K_0187.htm. Retrieved on 2008-12-09. [23] Billington, David P. (1985), The Tower and the Bridge: The New Art of Structural Engineering, Princeton University Press, pp. 234–5, ISBN 069102393X [24] List of Tallest skyscrapers in Chicago [25] Chicago Building Boom [26] Gramsbergen, Egbert and Paul Kazmierczak. "The World’s Best Skylines". http://homepages.ipact.nl/ %7Eegram/skylines.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-04. [27] SkyscraperPage.com - Chrysler Building. Quote:An exhibition in the building’s lobby reports the height as 1046’... [28] Emporis.com - Chrysler Building statistics [29] America’s Favorite Architecture: Chrysler Building ranked 9th [30] Nakeel Tower announcement [31] Kingdom Tower [32] Zawya [33] Owainati, Sadek (2008-11-03). "Reaching for the stars". ArabianBusiness.com. http://www.arabianbusiness.com/ 537095-reaching-for-the-stars. Retrieved on 2008-11-15. [34] Burj Dubai, Dubai / Emporis.com [35] Shanghai Tower Breaks Ground - Luxist [36] "Shanghai Center main building will reach 632 meters". People’s Daily Online. 2008-08-18. http://english.people.com.cn/90001/ 90776/6479288.html. Retrieved on 2008-08-19. [37] "???????????????????" (in Chinese) (pdf). Envir.gov.cn. 2008-08-13. http://www.envir.gov.cn/info/2008/
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200808131.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. [38] "Shanghai Center". Emporis. http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/ ?id=323473. Retrieved on 2008-05-17. [39] "Tallest Chinese building features indoor gardens". Shanghai Daily. 2008-07-24. http://www.shanghaidaily.com/sp/article/ 2008/200807/20080724/ article_367915.htm. Retrieved on 2008-08-09. [40] ^ Russia Tower / Emporis.com Quote: "Will be the tallest building in Europe when completed."..."When completed, it will be the tallest naturally ventilated tower in the world." [41] Shelbourne Development - The Chicago Spire Achieves 30 Percent Sales [42] Chicago Spire, Chicago / Emporis.com [43] ^ Freedom Tower, New York City / Emporis.com [44] Reliance Energy bags Hyderabad biz. district project [45] ^ Tour Generali - Paris, France / SkyscraperPage.com [46] The Independent, UK and Worldwide News: London’s ’Shard of Glass’ Must Face Public Inquiry. Thursday 25 July 2002, Paragraph four line one, Quote:"...dubbed the "Shard of Glass", would be 1,016ft high..." [47] Tony Gee & Partners LLP: TGP and Gifford to analyse underground conditions by the ’Shard of Glass’ [48] Shard London Bridge, London / Emporis.com • Skyscrapers: Form and Function, by David Bennett, Simon & Schuster, 1995.
See also
• List of tallest buildings in the world • List of tallest buildings and structures in the world • Emporis Skyscraper Award • Skyline • Skyscrapers in film • Skyscraper design and construction • vertical farming, "farmscrapers" • Skyscraper Index
External links
• Historical photos of skyscrapers in New York City • Skyscraper Museum
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• Tallest Building in the World • Skyscrapers and sequoias in the USA • SkyscraperPage Technical information and diagrams
Skyscraper
• SkyScrapers.org High Resolution skyscraper illustrations. • Skyscrapers at the Open Directory Project • 1880s "skyscraper" citations from word researcher Barry Popik.
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