United_States_congressional_apportionment

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia United States congressional apportionment United States congressional apportionment state’s number of electors equals the size of its total congressional delegation (i.e., House seat(s) plus Senate seats). Federal law requires the Clerk of the House to notify each state government of its entitled number of seats no later than January 25 of the year immediately following the census. After seats have been reapportioned, each state determines the boundaries of congressional districts—geographical areas within the state of approximately equal population—in a process called redistricting. Allocation of congressional districts after the 2000 census. United States congressional apportionment is the redistribution of the seats in the United States House of Representatives among the 50 states in respect of the constitutionally mandated decennial census. Each state is apportioned a number of seats which approximately corresponds to its share of the aggregate population of the 50 states.[1] However, every state is constitutionally guaranteed at least one seat. Constitutional text The subject of representation is addressed twice in the Constitution. Originally, the apportionment of House seats was commanded by Article I, Section 2, clause 3, which states: “ Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.[2] ” Reapportionment The number of seats in the House of Representatives is currently set to 435 by The Reapportionment Act of 1929 which can be changed by any legislature that has the will to do so. Though the actual reapportionment will normally occur in respect of a decennial census, the law that governs the total number of representatives and the method of apportionment to be carried into force at that time can be created prior to the census as in the case of the Reapportionment Act of 1929. A "reapportionment act" as with any other "act" must be signed by the president or the president’s veto overridden so as to become law. The decennial apportionment also determines the size of each state’s representation in the U.S. Electoral College—that is, any Following the end of the Civil War, the above provision was superseded by Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment, which states: “ Representatives shall be apportioned ” among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed.[3] The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative...[2] ” Article I additionally provides that: “ 1 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia United States congressional apportionment "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one Representative" (Article I, Section 2, Paragraph 3). Though each state is guaranteed one Representative under Article I, Section 2, Clause 3 of the U.S. Constitution, this does not set the minimum size of the House to 50 Representatives. There is also the stipulation that seats "shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers". One representative per state would be unconstitutional because it would make the House a non-proportional, U.S. Senate-like body. At the other extreme, because the number of Representatives cannot exceed one for every thirty thousand, the maximum number of Representatives at this time would be approximately 10,000. That same article of the Constitution also requires that representation in the House will be reapportioned following each decennial census. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Place of Chusing Senators.Article I Section 4 House size Ratio of representation in the House, 1789–1923 Years Source Constituents per Representative 30,000 1789–1793 U.S. Constitution 1793–1803 U.S. Census of 1790 33,000 1803–1813 U.S. Census of 1800 33,000 1813–1823 U.S. Census of 1810 35,000 1823–1833 U.S. Census of 1820 40,000 1833–1843 U.S. Census of 1830 47,700 1843–1853 U.S. Census of 1840 70,680 1853–1863 U.S. Census of 1850 93,425 1863–1873 U.S. Census of 1860 127,381 1873–1883 U.S. Census of 1870 131,425 1883–1893 U.S. Census of 1880 151,912 1893–1903 U.S. Census of 1890 173,901 1903–1913 U.S. Census of 1900 194,182 1913–1923 U.S. Census of 1910 212,407 The size of the United States House of Representatives refers to total number of congressional districts (or seats) into which the land area of the United States proper has been divided. The number of voting representatives is currently set at 435. There are an additional five delegates to the House of Representatives. They represent the District of Columbia and the territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, which first elected a representative in 2008,[4] and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Puerto Rico also elects a resident commissioner every four years. Proposals have been made to add voting representation for the District of Columbia, now represented only by a nonvoting delegate (see below), who is not counted as one of the apportioned House representatives. Recent bills, such as the District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act of 2007, would resolve the issue by permanently increasing House membership to 437. One of the new members would be from the District of Columbia; the other would be from the next state in line to receive another House seat (as described below), presently Utah. The United States Constitution requires that Controversy and History During the period that the current U.S. Constitution has been in effect, the number of citizens per congressional district has risen from an average of 33,000 in 1790 to almost 700,000 as of 2008. Prior to the 20th century, the number of representatives increased every decade as more states joined the union, and the population increased. In 1911, Public Law 62-5 raised the membership of the U.S. House to 433 with a provision to add one permanent seat each upon the admissions of Arizona and New Mexico as states. As provided, membership increased to 435 in 1912. But in 1921 the Republicans, having defeated the Democrats in the 1920 elections, failed to reapportion the House membership as required by the United States 2 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Constitution. This refusal to reapportion was because with a traditional reapportionment calling for equally populous, contiguous, and compact districts, many of the newly elected Republicans would have been redistricted out of their seats in the House. Then in 1929 the Republicans created the Reapportionment Act of 1929 resolving the problem by limiting the membership of the House and doing away with any provision for districts at all. That Act simply allows the parties and the representatives to elect representatives at large or to draw districts in politically beneficial shapes and sizes primarily for the purpose of retaining incumbency. The requirements for Constitutionally appropriate single member equally populous districts were not reasserted until the 1962 Supreme Court ruling in Baker v. Carr. But the ultra large districts are still easily gerrymandered because legislation insisting on contiguous and compact districts has not been reasserted in an apportionment act. The present size of 435 seats means one member represents on average about 650,000 people; but exact representation per member varies by state. Four states – Wyoming, Vermont, Alaska and North Dakota – currently have populations smaller than the average for a single district, though none has fewer than two-thirds of the average. While the malapportionment resulting from state boundaries is impossible to cure so long as electoral districts must be bounded by state lines and remain larger than 30 thousand people, the degree of malapportionment will probably not be allowed to rise above a reasonable threshold in any government that is "representative" or "republican". We are, according to several opinions, already past that political threshold with an average district size of 645000 people and with Montana’s single district containing almost twice the number of people as Wyoming’s. It has been suggested that a new reapportionment act is needed to significantly raise the number of representatives toward the end of creating districts more representative of the majority of the people and less representative of the parties and the lobby (The People’s House).[5] The ideal number of members has been a contentious issue since the country’s founding. George Washington agreed that the original representation proposed in the United States congressional apportionment Constitution Constitutional Convention (one representative for every 40,000) was inadequate and supported an alteration to reduce that number to 30,000.[6]. This was the only time that Washington pronounced an opinion on any of the actual issues debated during the entire convention. In Federalist No. 55, James Madison begins to address the claims that the representation will be inadequate and proposes that the major inadequacies are of minimal inconvenience since these will be cured rather quickly by virtue of decennial reapportionment.[7] THE number of which the House of Representatives is to consist, forms another and a very interesting point of view, under which this branch of the federal legislature may be contemplated. Scarce any article, indeed, in the whole Constitution seems to be rendered more worthy of attention, by the weight of character and the apparent force of argument with which it has been assailed. ... The number of which this branch of the legislature is to consist, at the outset of the government will be sixty-five. Within three years a census is to be taken, when the number may be augmented to one for every thirty thousand inhabitants; and within every successive period of ten years the census is to be renewed, and augmentations may continue to be made under the above limitation. It will not be thought an extravagant conjecture that the first census will, at the rate of one for every thirty thousand, raise the number to one hundred. Estimating the Negroes in the proportion of three fifths, it can scarcely be be doubted that the population of the Population of the United States will by that time, if it is not already, amount to three millions. At the expiration of twenty-five years,according to the computed rate of increase, the number of representatives will amount to two hundred; and of fifty years, to four hundred. This is a number which, I presume, will put an end to all fears arising from the smallness of the body. I take for granted here 3 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia what I shall, in answering the forth objection, hereinafter show, that the number of representatives will be augmented from time to time in the manner provided by the Constitution. On a contrary supposition, I should admit the objection to have very great weight indeed. ... Nothing can be more fallacious than to found our political calculations on arithmetical principles. Sixty or seventy men may be more properly trusted with a given degree of power than six or seven. But it does not follow that six or seven hundred would be proportionably a better depositary. And if we carry on the supposition to six or seven thousand, the whole reasoning ought to be reversed. The truth is, that in all cases a certain number at least seems to be necessary to secure the benefits of free consultation and discussion, and to guard against too easy a combination for improper purposes; as, on the other hand, the number ought at most to be kept within a certain limit, in order to avoid the confusion and intemperance of a multitude. In all very numerous assemblies, of whatever character composed, passion never fails to wrest the sceptre from reason. Had every Athenian citizen been a Socrates, every Athenian assembly would still have been a mob. Then in Federalist 56 through 58 Madison elaborates on these themes. The first proposed amendment to the Constitution attempted to set a pattern for growth of the House along with the population, but was never ratified. There is much debate over why the amendment was altered by a joint House and Senate subcommittee to cripple it. United States congressional apportionment of the state boundaries and populations. Though no method of calculating a fair distribution of voting power across the various sates is possible because of the size of current electoral districts, five distinct apportionment methods have been used since the adoption of the Constitution, all of them susceptible to mathematical paradoxes. The "Method of Equal Proportions" does much to fairly allocate the seats. But the paradoxes are always the result of choosing too small a membership thus choosing to large a divisor (yes the divisor can change without changing the total head count) and lastly choosing a method other than Hill. The Method of Equal Proportions Further information: Huntington-Hill method The apportionment methodology currently used is the "Method of Equal Proportions".[8][9][10], so called because it guarantees that no additional transfer of a seat (from one state to another) will reduce the ratio between the numbers of persons per Representative in any two states. According to NationalAtlas.gov, the method of equal proportions minimizes the percentage differences in the size of the congressional districts[11] In this method, as a first step, each of the 50 states is initially guaranteed at least one seat in the House of Representatives, leaving the remaining 385 seats to assign. The remaining seats are allocated one at a time, to the state that "deserves" the next assigned seat the most. Thus, the 51st seat would go to the most populous state (currently California). The measure of how much a state "deserves" the next allocatable seat is determined by a priority formula that is mathematically computed to be the ratio of the state population to the geometric mean of the number of seats it currently holds in the assignment process, n (initially 1), and the number of seats it would hold if the seat were assigned to it, n+1. For instance, in the example above, California has already received a second seat and thus "deserves" another seat some measure less than it had before the second seat was assigned. The formula for determining the priority of a state to be apportioned the next available seat defined by the method of equal proportions is Apportionment methods Apart from the fact that the number of delegates is at least one for each state, as required by the Constitution, a state’s number of representatives is in principle proportional to population thus assuring reasonably consistent representation to the people regardless 4 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia United States congressional apportionment granted Utah a fourth seat, as well as a voting Representative to the District of Columbia, had it passed. where P is the population of the state, and n is the number of seats it currently holds before the possible allocation of the next seat. An equivalent, recursive definition is Past apportionments See also: Apportionment Bill Note: The first apportionment was established by the Constitution, not the Census. where n is still the number of seats the state has before allocation of the next, and for n = 1, the initial A1 is explicitly defined as Projected changes following the 2010 census The U.S. Census Bureau will conduct a comprehensive census in April 2010. Based on the populations counted in each state, the United States Congress will be reapportioned based on the Equal Proportions Method defined above. The total number of voting representatives is expected to remain at 435, assuming no legislation passes that would modify the apportionment process. Since the Census Bureau releases population estimates every year, projections have been made that predict the states’ populations as of April 2010. One study estimates that fourteen seats would shift between the states as follows:[13] Other possible changes include California losing a seat, and North Carolina gaining one.[13] In addition, Florida may gain only one seat, rather than two, and Oregon may gain a seat.[13] The 10-year national growth rate is 12.5%. In this estimate, the population of states losing seats grew at a slower rate and the population of states gaining seats grew at a faster pace. Louisiana is the only state losing a seat that is estimated to have lost population between 2000 and 2010, significantly due to the exodus precipitated by the damage caused by Hurricane Katrina. The losing states are in the industrial northeast and midwest, while gainers are in the southeast, southwest and Pacific northwest.[13] Consider the reapportionment following the 2000 U.S. Census. Beginning with all states initially being allocated one seat, the largest value of A1 corresponds to the largest state, California, which is allocated seat 51. But after being allocated its 2nd seat, its priority value decreases to its A2 value which is reordered to a position back in line. The 52nd seat goes to Texas, the 2nd largest state, because its A1 priority value is larger than the An of any other state. However, the 53rd goes back to California because its A2 priority value is larger than the An of any other state. The 54th seat goes to New York because its A1 priority value is larger than the An of any other state at this point. This process continues until all 435 seats have assigned (in 2000, just after the 13th seat for North Carolina was allocated, much to the chagrin of state officials in Utah). Each time a state is assigned a seat, n is incremented by 1, causing its priority value to be reduced and reordered among the states when normally another state rises to the top of the list. The Census 2000 Ranking of Priority Values[12] shows the order in which seats 51–435 were apportioned after the 2000 Census, with additional listings for the next five priorities. North Carolina was allocated the final (435th) seat. Utah (priority list 436) missed a fourth seat by only 857 residents. Legal action by Utah to amend the results, citing irregularities in the North Carolina count and undercounting of Utah’s overseas missionary population (suggested to be as many as 14,000), was unsuccessful. The proposed Voting Rights Act of 2007 would have Past increases The size of the U.S. House has increased as follows:[14] 1789-1800 1801-1820 5 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia United States congressional apportionment Census Effected Size AL AK AZ AR CA CO CT DE FL GA HI ID IL IN IA KS KY LA ME MD - Year Const. 1st 1790 2nd 1800 3rd 1810 4th 1820 5th 1830 6th 1840 7th 1850 8th 1860 9th 1870 10th 1880 1789 1793 1803 1813 1823 1833 1843 1853 1863 1873 1883 65 105 142 182 213 240 223 234 241 292 325 3 5 7 7 6 8 8 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 6 1 5 7 7 7 6 6 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 2 4 6 7 9 8 8 7 9 10 1 3 7 9 3 7 1 3 2 6 7 8 7 6 5 5 4 6 8 9 9 9 8 6 6 5 6 6 10 1 12 3 13 3 10 4 10 4 9 5 10 11 2 14 11 6 19 13 9 10 6 11 6 20 13 11 7 Census Effected Size AL AK AZ AR CA CO CT DE FL GA HI ID IL IN IA KS KY LA ME MD - Year 11th 1890 12th 1900 13th 1910 14th 1920 15th 1930 16th 1940 17th 1950 18th 1960 19th 1970 20th 1980 1893 1903 1913 356 386 435 9 9 1 6 7 7 7 8 11 2 3 4 4 5 5 1 1 1 2 3 4 11 11 12 1 1 2 22 13 11 8 25 13 11 8 27 13 11 8 11 6 11 7 11 8 4 4 4 6 6 6 10 - No apportionment enacted. Distribution of seats from 1913 remained in effect. 1933 1943 1953 1963 1973 1983 435 435 435 435 435 435 9 9 9 8 7 7 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 7 7 6 4 4 4 20 23 30 38 43 45 4 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 6 8 10 10 10 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 27 12 9 26 11 8 25 11 8 24 11 7 24 11 6 22 10 6 7 6 6 5 5 5 9 9 8 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 3 3 3 2 2 2 6 6 7 8 8 8 12 10 15 10 19 10 6 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia United States congressional apportionment Census Effected Size AL AK AZ AR CA CO CT DE FL GA HI ID IL IN IA KS KY LA ME MD - Year 21st 1990 22nd 2000 1993 2003 435 435 7 7 1 1 6 8 4 4 52 53 6 7 6 5 1 1 23 11 25 13 2 2 2 2 20 10 5 19 9 5 4 4 6 6 7 7 2 2 8 8 Gain more Gain one than one Lose one Lose more than one Texas +4 Georgia +1 South Carolina +1 Illinois -1 Minnesota -1 Ohio -2 Arizona +2 Nevada +1 Utah +1 Iowa -1 Missouri -1 Florida +2 Louisiana -1 New Jersey -1 Massachusetts -1 New York -1 Michigan -1 Pennsylvania -1 Date March 4, 1789 November 21, 1789 May 29, 1790 March 4, 1791 June 1, 1792 March 4, 1793 June 1, 1796 Date March 1, 1803 March 4, 1803 April 30, 1812 March 4, 1813 December 11, 1816 December 10, 1817 December 3, 1818 December 14, 1819 March 15, 1820 Size 59 64 65 67 69 105 106 Size 107 142 143 182 183 184 185 186 186 Comments Seats provided for in the Constitution. North Carolina ratifies. Seats provided for in the Constitution. Rhode Island ratifies. Seat provided for in the Constitution. Vermont admitted. Kentucky admitted. Apportionment of the First Census. Tennessee admitted. Comments Ohio admitted. Apportionment of the Second Census. Louisiana admitted. Apportionment of the Third Census. Indiana admitted. Mississippi admitted. Illinois admitted. Alabama admitted. Maine admitted, given seven seats. Massachusetts delegation reduced correspondingly. 1821-1840 1841-1860 1861-1880 1881-1900 7 1901-present Proposed expansion Expansion would cause the United States Electoral College result to more closely reflect the national popular vote, as the number From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Date August 10, 1821 March 4, 1823 March 4, 1833 June 15, 1836 January 26, 1837 Date March 4, 1843 March 3, 1845 December 29, 1845 December 28, 1846 May 29, 1848 March 4, 1849 September 9, 1850 March 4, 1853 May 11, 1858 February 14, 1859 Date January 29, 1861 June 2, 1862 March 4, 1863 June 20, 1863 Size 187 213 240 241 242 Size 223 224 226 228 230 231 233 234 236 237 Comments Missouri admitted. United States congressional apportionment Apportionment of the Fourth Census. Apportionment of the Fifth Census. Arkansas admitted. Michigan admitted. Comments Apportionment of the Sixth Census. Florida admitted. Texas annexed and admitted. Iowa admitted. Wisconsin admitted. Wisconsin given another seat. California admitted. Apportionment of the Seventh Census. Minnesota admitted. Oregon admitted. Size 238 239 241 241 Comments Kansas admitted. California awarded an extra seat.[15] Apportionment of the Eighth Census.[16] West Virginia admitted;[17] given three seats. Virginia’s delegation reduced in census reapportionment. Nevada admitted. Nebraska admitted. Apportionment of the Ninth Census. Colorado admitted. Wyoming’s. See List of U.S. states by population. On May 21, 2001, Rep. Alcee Hastings sent a dear colleague letter pointing out that U.S. expansion of its legislature had not kept pace with other countries.[18] In 2007, the Utah delegation asked Congress to pass a bill that would add two seats to the House of Representatives, one for Utah and one for the District of Columbia. A bill doing so passed the House but was blocked in the Senate. In 2009, the bill passed the Senate, but has not been voted on October 31, 1864 242 March 1, 1867 March 4, 1873 August 1, 1876 243 292 293 of Representatives would begin to dwarf the number of Senators, which is fixed at two per state. The Wyoming Rule, an idea with some contemporary currency, calls for expanding the House until the standard Representativeto-population ratio equals that of the smallest entitled unit (i.e., Wyoming). This proposal is primarily designed to address the fact that some House districts are currently nearly twice the size of others; for instance, there are about 944,000 residents in Montana’s single district, compared to about 515,000 in 8 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Date March 4, 1883 November 2, 1889 November 8, 1889 November 11, 1889 July 3, 1890 July 10, 1890 March 4, 1893 January 4, 1896 Date March 4, 1903 November 16, 1907 January 6, 1912 February 14, 1912 March 4, 1913 Size 325 328 329 330 331 332 356 357 Size 386 391 393 394 435 Comments United States congressional apportionment Apportionment of the Tenth Census. North Dakota and South Dakota admitted. One seat goes to the former, two to the latter. Montana admitted. Washington admitted. Idaho admitted. Wyoming admitted. Apportionment of the Eleventh Census. Utah admitted. Comments Apportionment of the Twelfth Census. Oklahoma admitted. New Mexico admitted. Arizona admitted. Apportionment of the Thirteenth Census. House size locked by Public Law 62-5, excepting temporary expansions due to the admission of new states. Alaska admitted. Hawaii admitted. Apportionment of the Eighteenth Census. House size reverted to 435 per Public Law 62-5. • Hamilton, Alexander; Madison, James; Jay, John (1831). The Federalist. Hallowell: Glazier, Masters & Co.. http://books.google.com/ books?id=6TATAAAAYAAJ. • Edelman, Paul H. (2006). "Getting the Math Right: Why California Has Too Many Seats in the House of Representatives". Vanderbilt Law Review (Nashville: Vanderbilt University) 102 (March): 297. January 3, 1959 August 21, 1959 January 3, 1963 436 437 435 in the House. President Obama has said he would sign it. Should full representation of DC be found constitutional by the courts, the number of Representatives in the House will expand by two.[19] References Sources • Balinski, Michael L.; Young, H. Peyton (1982). Fair Representation: Meeting the Ideal of One Man, One Vote. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. http://books.google.com/ books?id=eBFNzSeAv_sC. • Foster, Robert (1895). Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States: Historical and Judicial. 1. Boston: The Boston Book Co.. pp. 329–446. http://books.google.com/ books?id=Rd49AAAAIAAJ. Notes • Delegate counts in italics represent temporary counts assigned by Congress until the next decennial census or by the U.S. Constitution in 1789 until the first U.S. Census. • Elections held in the year of a census use the apportionment determined by the previous census. 9 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [1] The populations of Washington, D.C. and federal territories are not included in this figure. [2] ^ U.S. Const., art. I, § 2, cl. 3. [3] U.S. Const., amend. XIV, § 2. [4] Bush signs federalization bill, Agnes E. Donato, Saipan Tribune, May 10, 2008. [5] Thirty-Thousand.org - Return the House of Representatives to the People (Home Page) [6] George Will Called Me An Idiot, Jonah Golderg, National Review, January 15, 2001. [7] The Federalist #55 [8] "The History of Apportionment in America". American Mathematical Society. http://www.ams.org/ featurecolumn/archive/apportion2.html. Retrieved on 2009-02-15. [9] "2 USC §2a". Cornell University Law School, Legal Information Institute. http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/ uscode02/usc_sec_02_00000002--a000-.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. [10] "Computing Apportionment". U.S. Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/ population/www/censusdata/ apportionment/computing.html. Retrieved on 2009-02-14. [11] "Congressional Apportionment". NationalAtlas.gov. http://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/ boundaries/a_conApport.html#six. Retrieved on 2009-02-14. [12] "Census 2000 Ranking of Priority Values". U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2001-02-21. http://www.census.gov/ population/censusdata/apportionment/ 00pvalues.txt. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. [13] ^ Brace, Kimball (2008-12-22). "New Population Estimates Show Slight Changes For 2008 Congressional Apportionment, But Point to Major Changes for 2010 – Table E". ElectionDataServices. http://www.electiondataservices.com/ images/File/NR_Appor08wTables.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-12-25. [14] The Size of the U. S. House of Representatives and its Constituent State Delegations, thirty-thousand.org. United States congressional apportionment [15] 12 Stat. 411 [16] 12 Stat. 353 [17] 12 Stat. 633; 13 Stat. 731 [18] House of Representatives? Hardly., Alcee Hastings, May 21, 2001. [19] Senate Passes D.C. Voting Rights Bill, 61-37 See also • Stinebrickner-Kauffman, Taren (2004). "Counting Matters: Prison Inmates, Population Bases, and "One Person, One Vote"". Virginia Journal of Social Policy & the Law (Chicago: Virginia Journal of Social Policy & the Law) 11 (Winter): 229. See also • List of states ordered by number of electors in the presidential elections, which is two more for each state. • United States Congress • United States House of Representatives • Apportionment paradox • Redistricting • Gerrymandering • List of U.S. states by population External links • Congressional Apportionment by the U.S. Census Bureau • Cut-the-knot.org:The Constitution and Paradoxes • Thirty-thousand.org • Commentaries and More Information on Increasing U.S. House Size. • Mathematical article on alternative apportionment methodsPDF Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" Categories: Demographics of the United States, United States House of Representatives, United States congressional districts 10 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia United States congressional apportionment This page was last modified on 21 May 2009, at 01:39 (UTC). All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) taxdeductible nonprofit charity. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers 11