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Profession
Profession
"A profession is a vocation founded upon specialised educational training, the purpose of which is to supply disinterested counsel and service to others, for a direct and definite compensation, wholly apart from expectation of other business gain"[1]. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, professions involve the application of specialised knowledge of a subject, field, or science to fee-paying clientele.[2] It is axiomatic that "professional activity involves systematic knowledge and proficiency."[3] Professions are distinguished from other occupations represented by trade groups due to their level of legal recognition.[4] 1. It became a full-time occupation; 2. The first training school was established; 3. The first university school was established; 4. The first local association was established; 5. The first national association was established; 6. The codes of professional ethics were introduced; 7. State licensing laws were established.[4] The ranking of established professions in the United States based on the above milestones shows Surveying first (George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln were all land surveyors before entering politics), followed by Medicine, Law, Dentistry, Civil Engineering, Logistics, Architecture and Accounting[5]. With the rise of technology and occupational specialization in the 19th century, other bodies began to claim professional status: Pharmacy, Logistics, Veterinary Medicine, Nursing, Teaching, Librarianship, Optometry and Social Work, all of which could claim to be professions by 1900 using these milestones[6]. Just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages, so others may decline. This is characterized by the red cloaks of bishops giving way to the black cloaks of lawyers and then to the white cloaks of doctors[7]. With the church having receded in its role in western society, the remaining classical professions (law and medicine) are both noted by many as requiring not just study to enter, but extensive study and accreditation above and beyond simply getting a university degree. Accordingly more recently-formalized disciplines, such as architecture, which now have equally-long periods of study associated with them. [8] Although professions enjoy high status and public prestige, all professionals do not earn the same high salaries. There are hidden inequalities even within professions.
Etymology
The term is derived from the Latin: "to swear (an oath)". The oath referred to dictates adherence to ethical standards, which invariably include practitioner/client confidentiality, truthfulness, and the striving to be an expert in one’s calling, all three of these being practiced above all for the benefit of the client. There is also a stipulation about upholding the good name of the profession.
History
Jesus and the doctors of the Faith, by the entourage of Giuseppe Ribera
Classically, there were only three professions: Divinity, Medicine, and Law[4]. The main milestones which mark an occupation being identified as a profession are:
Examples of professions
Professions include, for example: Surveyors, Social Workers, Nurses, Pharmacists, Lawyers, Accountants, Veterinarians, Pilots,
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Engineers, Teachers, Diplomats, Commissioned Officers, Professors, Librarians, Archivists, Clergy, Urban Planners, Architects, Physical Therapists, Dentists, Occupational Therapists, Chiropractors, and Physicians.[9]
Profession
to practice, as is the case for accountancy in the United Kingdom (except for auditing and insolvency work which legally require qualification by a professional body). In such cases, qualification by the professional bodies is effectively still considered a prerequisite to practice as most employers and clients stipulate that the individual hold such qualifications before hiring their services.
Formation of a profession
A profession arises when any trade or occupation transforms itself through "the development of formal qualifications based upon education and examinations, the emergence of regulatory bodies with powers to admit and discipline members, and some degree of monopoly rights."[10] The process by which a profession arises from a trade or occupation is often termed professionalization and has been described as one, "starting with the establishment of the activity as a full-time occupation, progressing through the establishment of training schools and university links, the formation of a professional organization, and the struggle to gain legal support for exclusion, and culminating with the formation of a formal code of ethics."[11]
Autonomy
Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own affairs: "professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their work"[12] This usually means "the freedom to exercise their professional judgement."[13] However, it has other meanings. "Professional autonomy is often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests...this professional autonomy can only be maintained if members of the profession subject their activities and decisions to a critical evaluation by other members of the profession "[14] The concept of autonomy can therefore be seen to embrace not only judgement, but also self-interest and a continuous process of critical evaluation of ethics and procedures from within the profession itself.
Regulation
Professions are typically regulated by statute, with the responsibilities of enforcement delegated to respective professional bodies, whose function is to define, promote, oversee, support and regulate the affairs of its members. These bodies are responsible for the licensure of professionals, and may additionally set examinations of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code of practice. However, they all require that the individual hold at least a first professional degree before licensure. There may be several such bodies for one profession in a single country, an example being the ten accountancy bodies (ACCA, ICAEW, ICAI, ICAS, CIMA, CIPFA, AAPA, CIMA, IFA, CPA) of the United Kingdom, all of which have been given a Royal Charter although not necessarily considered to hold equivalent-level qualifications. Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a local professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in some countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order
Status and prestige
Professions enjoy a high social status, regard and esteem [15] [16] conferred upon them by society. This high esteem arises primarily from the higher social function of their work, which is regarded as vital to society as a whole and thus of having a special and valuable nature. All professions involve technical, specialised and highly skilled work often referred to as "professional expertise." [17] Training for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional qualifications (see Licensure) without which entry to the profession is barred (occupational closure). Training also requires regular updating of skills through continuing education.
Power
All professions have power. [18] This power is used to control its own members, and also its area of expertise and interests. A profession tends to dominate, police and protect its area
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of expertise and the conduct of its members, and exercises a dominating influence over its entire field which means that professions can act monopolist, [19] rebuffing competition from ancillary trades and occupations, as well as subordinating and controlling lesser but related trades. [20] A profession is characterised by the power and high prestige it has in society as a whole. It is the power, prestige and value that society confers upon a profession that more clearly defines it.
Profession
more likely to reach the top of their professions. Gender gaps have been found in the starting salaries of newly qualified solicitors. And there are segregated professions, and occupations."[23] However, the situation is fluid, and some trends can be detected. For example, in 2007, women comprised 63% of students enrolled in United States professional pharmaceutical programs and 51.3% of PhD candidates in that same field.[24] Similarly, women comprised 47.3% of those entering United States Law Schools in 2007 and are projected to comprise as much as 49.4% of law students by the end of the decade.[25] Such shifts seem to indicate a gradual trend toward greater gender equality in the professions.
Gender inequality
There is a long-standing and well-documented male domination of all professions, even though this has weakened over the last forty years or so. For example, well-qualified women rarely get the same pay as men. "There is a 15 per cent pay gap between men and women across Europe. The situation is particularly bad in Britain. A report by the ’Women and Work Commission’ last year found that women in full-time work are earning 17 per cent less than men on average...significant numbers of women enter professions such as the law and medicine every year. They are increasingly well represented as heads of professional bodies and national arts organisations. Overall, since 1975, the pay gap has narrowed by 12 percentage points."[21] Although in Britain, "the fulltime gender pay gap has shrunk in the past 30 years, it is still 17%, while for part-time work it is stuck at a shameful 40%....all this is happening when, at school and college, women are outshining men. In the medical and legal professions there has been a ’genderquake,’"[22] which means these professions are gradually becoming female-dominated. Yet their pay continues to lag behind that of their male colleagues. This situation is by no means limited to the law and medicine. "Research from the profession’s leading body, the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD), has discovered that there is a 23% pay gap between men and women in senior HR positions. This all the more embarrassing because HR is considered a women’s profession....and (although) a professional qualification is a hallmark of equality...in practice, some professionals are better rewarded than others, and that the better rewarded tend to be men. This is not solely because men are
Racial inequality
Equally qualified blacks get paid less than equivalent whites. "the percentage difference in earnings between Blacks and Whites was smallest (5%) in the lowest-paid occupations and greatest in the highest-paid occupations...black dentists and physicians earned 80 cents for every dollar earned by their White colleagues. Black lawyers earned 79 cents for every dollar earned by White lawyers...black men have made inroads into the most highly paid occupations, but once they get there, they find they still don’t earn as much as equally qualified White men."[26]
Characteristics of a profession
The list of characteristics that follows is extensive, but does not claim to include every characteristic that has ever been attributed to professions, nor do all of these features apply to every profession: 1. : Professionals are assumed to have extensive theoretical knowledge (e.g. medicine, law, scripture or engineering) and to possess skills based on that knowledge that they are able to apply in practice. 2. : Professions usually have professional bodies organized by their members, which are intended to enhance the status of their members and have carefully controlled entrance requirements.
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3. : The most prestigious professions usually require at least three years at university. Undertaking doctoral research can add a further 4-5 years to this period of education. 4. : Before being admitted to membership of a professional body, there is a requirement to pass prescribed examinations that are based on mainly theoretical knowledge. 5. : In addition to examinations, there is usually a requirement for a long period of institutionalized training where aspiring professionals acquire specified practical experience in some sort of trainee role before being recognized as a full member of a professional body. Continuous upgrading of skills through professional development is also mandatory these days. 6. : Professions seek to establish a register or membership so that only those individuals so licensed are recognized as bona fide. 7. : Professionals tend to retain control over their work, even when they are employed outside the profession in commercial or public organizations. They have also gained control over their own theoretical knowledge. 8. : Professional bodies usually have codes of conduct or ethics for their members and disciplinary procedures for those who infringe the rules. 9. : Professional bodies tend to insist that they should be self-regulating and independent from government. Professions tend to be policed and regulated by senior, respected practitioners and the most highly qualified members of the profession. 10. : The earning of fees for services rendered can be defended because they are provided in the public interest, e.g. the work of doctors contributes to public health. 11. : Professions tend to exclude those who have not met their requirements and joined the appropriate professional body. This is often termed professional closure, and seeks to bar entry for the unqualified and to sanction or expel incompetent members. 12. : Where levels of remuneration are determined by government, professional bodies are active in negotiating (usually advantageous) remuneration packages for
Profession
their members. Some professions set standard scale fees, but government advocacy of competition means that these are no longer generally enforced. : The most successful professions achieve high status, public prestige and rewards for their members. Some of the factors included in this list contribute to such success. : Many professions have individual feepaying clients. For example, in accountancy, "the profession" usually refers to accountants who have individual and corporate clients, rather than accountants who are employees of organizations. : Traditionally, many professions have been viewed as ’respectable’ occupations for middle and upper classes.[27] : The highest status professions have tended to be male dominated although females are closing this gender gap Women are now being admitted to the priesthood while its status has declined relative to other professions. Similar arguments apply to race and class: ethnic groups and working-class people are no less disadvantaged in most professions than they are in society generally.[28] : Professionals are able to offer reassurance to their clients that although there appear to be problems, everything is normal or being dealt with properly, and this reassurance may be offered rather than solutions to particular problems. For example, sick people may be reassured that they will probably get better in a few days. : Church ritual and the Court procedure are obviously ritualistic. : Professions have clear legal authority over some activities (e.g. certifying the insane) but are also seen as adding legitimacy to a wide range of related activities. : In some professions, the body of knowledge is relatively inaccessible to the uninitiated. Medicine and law are typically not school subjects and have separate faculties and even separate libraries at universities. : Professional knowledge contains elements that escape being mastered and communicated in the form of rules and can only be acquired through experience.
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22. : The skill knowledge and authority of professionals belongs to the professionals as individuals, not the organizations for which they work. Professionals are therefore relatively mobile in employment opportunities as they can move to other employers and take their talents with them. Standardization of professional training and procedures enhances this mobility.[29].
Profession
of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741. [9] Lorne M. Fienberg, Examples of Professions [10] Alan Bullock & Stephen Trombley, The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, London: Harper-Collins, 1999, p.689. [11] http://findarticles.com/p/articles/ mi_m0254/is_4_58/ai_58496769 Jennifer Roberts & Michael Dietrich, Conceptualizing Professionalism: Why Economics Needs Sociology, The • Professional American Journal of Economics and • First professional degree Sociology, Oct, 1999. • Professional body [12] Bayles, Michael D. Professional Ethics. • Professional class Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1981. • Professional development [13] http://www.wma.net/e/policy/a21.htm • Professional responsibility The World Medical Association • Professional ethics Declaration of Madrid on Professional • Professionalization Autonomy and Self-Regulation, 1987. • Semiprofession [14] http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ klu/meta/2000/00000021/00000005/ 00274496 Hoogland J. & Jochemsen H., Professional Autonomy and the [1] New Statesman, 21 April 1917, article by Normative Structure of Medical Practice, the Webbs quoted with approval at Theoretical Medicine, 21.5, September paragraph 123 of a report by the UK 2000, pp.457-475. Competition Commission, dated 8 [15] http://www.usca.edu/essays/vol62003/ November 1977, entitled Architects tinsley.pdf Ron Tinsley & James C Hardy, Services (in Chapter 7). Faculty Pressures and Professional Self[2] Oxford English Dictionary, Second Esteem: Life in Texas Teacher Education. Edition (Oxford University Press, 1989). [16] http://www.rcpath.org/ [3] http://www.ethical-perspectives.be/ index.asp?PageID=28 Royal College of page.php?LAN=E&FILE=ep_detail&ID=100&TID=909 Pathologists, The role of the College and Asa Kasher, Professional Ethics and benefits of membership, 16 Dec 2005. Collective Professional Autonomy A [17] http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ Conceptual Analysis, Ethical rsm/hsmr/2004/00000017/00000002/ Perspectives, 12/1 (March - 2005), art00004 P. C. S. Lian & A. W. Laing, pp.67-97. The role of professional expertise in the [4] ^ Perks, R.W.(1993): Accounting and purchasing of health services, Health Society. Chapman & Hall (London); ISBN Services Management Research, 17.2, 1 0412473305. p.2. May 2004, pp.110-120. [5] Perks, p.3. [18] Terence Johnson, Professions and Power, [6] Buckley, J.W. & Buckley, M.H. (1974): London: Heinemann, 1972. The Accounting Profession. Melville, Los [19] Gerald Larkin, Occupational Monopoly Angeles. Quoted by Perks, p.4. and Modern Medicine, London: [7] Zola, I.K. (1977): Healthism and Tavistock, 1983. disabling medicalization. Marion Boyars [20] Peter E. S. Freund, & Meredith B. Publishers, New York. Quoted by Perks, McGuire, Health Illness and the Social p.4. Body A Critical Sociology, New Jersey, [8] Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and USA: Prentice Hall, 1995, p.211. Industrial design: How attitudes, [21] Bridge the pay gap, it is outdated orientations and underlying assumptions discrimination, The Independent, 23 shape the built environment. Oslo School February 2007
See also
References
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[22] Malcolm Dean, "Ending inequality is a work in progress", The Guardian, November 16, 2005 [23] Bill Saunders, Pay differentials, The Guardian, October 4, 2004 [24] AACP, Academic Pharmacy’s Vital Statistics, April 2008 [25] [http://www.abanet.org/legaled/statistics/ charts/stats%20-%206.pdf First Year and Total J.D. Enrollment by Gender 1947-2007] [26] Anon, Despite Rising to top Professions, Black Men still don’t earn top Pay, Jet, Sept 3, 2001 [27] Perks, p.6-11. [28] Perks, p.11. [29] Perks, pgs. 12-14.
Profession
• P.J. Corfield, Power and the Professions in Britain, 1700-1850, Routledge, London, 1995. • Yves Dezalay and David Sugarman, Professional Competition and Professional Power, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0203977211. • Eliot Freidson, Professional Powers: A Study of the Institutionalization of Formal Knowledge, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986, ISBN 0-226-26225-1. • Joseph M. Jacob, Doctors and Rules: A Sociology of Professional Values, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick and London, 1999. • Jonathan Montgomery, Medicine, Accountability, and Professionalism, 1989.
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