History of North Africa and Egypt

Introduction History of Africa varied considerably in the first of the second millennium C.E. Some areas essentially untouched Others profoundly impacted by foreigners • Notably Europeans and the Islamic world This chapter will examine The spread of Islam The rise of substantial empires and kingdoms Increasing European influence North Africa and Egypt Feisty regionalism characterized states north of Sahara No power controlled them for long By 1800 Ottoman domains in Africa were independent Morocco was the only North African sultanate to remain fully independent after 1700 Arab and Berber population united after 1500 to oppose the Portuguese and the Spaniards Spread of Islam South of Sahara Islamic influence in sub-Saharan Africa began as early as the eighth century By 1800 it affected most of Sudanic belt Coast of East Africa as far south as Zimbabwe Islam rarely penetrated beyond merchant class Tended to coexist with indigenous practices Islam did bring commercial and political changes Many innovations depended on writing and literacy Spread to West and East Africa In East Africa – Muslim traders began to “Islamize” ports before 800 Trading communities and city states developed from the 13th century on By contrast, western and central Africa were introduced to Islam by overland routes But agents in both cases were merchants West – mainly Berbers going to trading centers • Awdaghast, Kumbi 985 – Gao – first Islamic west African court Almoravids and Fulani Zealous militants known as Almoravids Began an overt conversion campaign in 1030’s Taking Awdaghast, then Kumbi in 1076 Forcibly converted Soninke in Ghana Fulbe (Fulani) along Senegal became Islamic Fulani remained important carrier of Islam Some groups in West Africa resisted Islamization Mossi kingdoms in Volta region at Wagadugu around 1050 and Yatenga around 1170 Ghana Model for later empires of western Sudan Ghanaian kingdoms as early as 400 C.E. Regional power by around 1000 C.E. Soninke - main population group Matrilineal descent for kings Kings ruled with council of ministers King is still supreme judge Sense of being divinely blessed Ghana – Economic Foundation Ghana had a solid economic base Tribute from chieftaincies Taxes on royal lands and crops Dominated trade • Control over gold and slave trade Kings did not convert to Islam But accommodated Muslims traders Literate Muslims administered the government Empire destroyed by Soso people Mali Keita ruling clan formed Mali Empire Ghanaian successor kingdom Same economic base as Ghana Domination of gold and slave land trade Also dominated trade on Niger River Malinke – core population Keita dynasty converted early to Islam Claimed descent from Bilal • Muhammad’s famous muezzin Sundiata – r. 1230-1255 Imperial power built by Sundiata (Sunjaata) Topic of west African epic Sundiata Dominated land and river trade West to Atlantic, east to beyond Timbuktu Niani – capital Empire encompassed three major regions Senegal – Fulbe, Tukulor, Wolof, Serer Central Mande states – Soninke, Mandinke Gao region of Niger – people spoke Songhai Mansa Musa – r. 1312-1337 Greatest Mali king Devout Muslim Famous pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 Gave away so much gold in Cairo on way • Inflation for a decade Returned with Muslim scholars Timbuktu becomes Islamic center Famous for madrasas and libararies Leading intellectual center of sub-Saharan Songhai Centered around city of Gao Overthrew Mali power around 1375 Sonni Ali – r. 1464-1492 Greatest Sunni ruler Adhered to traditional African religion Most powerful state in Africa Strong military • Riverboat flotilla and cavalry • Captured Jenne and Timbuktu Askia Muhammad al-Turi Askia Muhammad al-Turi – r. 1493-1528 Powerful Songhai successor to Sonni Ali Continued expansionist policies Enthusiastic Muslim Built mosques throughout realm Appointed Muslim judges (qadis) Made his own pilgrimage to Mecca • “Caliph of the western Sahara” Continued development of Timbuktu Kanem Confederation of Zaghawah nomadic tribes Settled in Kanam Mai Dunama Dibbalemi – r. 1221-1259 Key leader in military expansion Transformation of Kanuri leaders From nomadic shaykh to Sudanic king Kanem’s dominance was of two kinds Direct control over taxation and tribute Indirect control over tribute from vassals Kanem-Bornu After 1400 the center of power shifted east Bornu, southwest of Lake Chad New Kanuri empire in sixteenth century Idris Alawma – r. 1575-1610 Unified Kanem and Bornu Islamic state Power destroyed by around 1700 Famine, weak leadership, Tuareg attacks Dynasty carried on until 1846 Eastern Sudan Christian states of Maqurra and Alwa In Nubia – seventh century for around 600 years Interference from Mamluks Islamic pressures Gradual disappearance of Christianity Associated with foreign Egyptian world Both states become Islamized – fifteenth century Funj state – replaces Alwa Islamic state – unique Arabized character Benin Benin – forest kingdom in West Africa Edo speakers – modern southern Nigeria Patrilineal system – primogeniture Oba – king Uzama – leaders who limited power of oba King Ewuare – rebuilt capital city Edo Tradition of military kingship Transformation of oba – religious figure • Supernatural powers – human sacrifice Benin Art Court art – lasting significance of Benin Terra-cotta, ivory, brass statuary sculpture Wholly indigenous African products • Might trace back to ancient Nok culture Depiction of legendary and historical scenes Mounted in palace at Benin City Brass heads found at Ife Represent the Oni • Religious chief of ancient Ife Senegambia Growing European presence on western coasts Senegambia – Senegal and Gambia Rivers Long role in trans-Saharan trade One of first areas impacted by European trade Gold, cotton, hides, copper Active in slave trade for around a century Slaves – one-third of all African slaves exported in the sixteenth century came from Senegambia Eventually slave trade moved further south Gold Coast Impacted by arrival of international maritime trade Southern outlet of gold trade Portuguese at Elmina in 1481 Europeans built coastal forts after 1500 Depots for inland goods Trade encouraged growth of large states Introduction of American crops Maize and cassava Slaves became big business in 1600s Eventually more gold from slave trade than from mining Kongo Kingdom Portuguese come to Central Africa for slaves Kongo – major state Portuguese dealt with Strong central government Kings – spiritual spokesman for gods/ancestors Exports – slaves Imports – fine clothing, tobacco, alcohol Initial efforts at Christian proselytizing Local rulers attacked neighbors for slaves To acquire more slaves to sell to Portuguese Affonso I – r. ca. 1506-1543 Affonso I was a Christian convert Welcomed Jesuit missionaries, conversion Eventually broke with Jesuits Encouraged traditional practices Intolerance of Christians, growth of slave trade Bloodshed between two sides Kongo resurgence in the seventeenth century Christianity as state religion • Accommodated to ancestor cult, magic Angola Ndongo kingdom Mbundu people Experience even worse than that of Kongo Portuguese tried to make Angola a colony By end of 1500s, Angola was exporting thousands of slaves a year Hinterland depopulated Maize and cassava brought changes in interior Coastal region – Portuguese-led disaster East Africa Participation of East African port towns in lucrative South-Seas trade was ancient Arabs, Indonesians, some Indians Many absorbed into Bantu-speaking population Area from Somalia south Islam – Arab and Persian sailors and merchants Arabs called the land Zanj (“Blacks”) Muslim traders began to dominate coastal cities Mogadishu to Kilwa Swahili Culture Swahili – common language Arab word sawahil – “coastlands” Interaction of Bantu and Arabic speakers Swahili culture is basically Africa With Arab, Persian, extra-African elements Swahili language and culture Developed first in northern towns • Manda, Lamu, Monbasa Remained localized on the coast Swahili Commerce Swahili civilization’s peak – fourteenth through fifteenth centuries Swahili ruling dynasties probably African • Admixture of Arab or Persian blood Society – three groups Nobility, commoners, foreigners Slaves constituted a fourth class Exports – ivory, gold, slaves, ebony Imports – cloth, porcelain, glassware Portuguese and the Omanis Swahili civilization decline in the sixteenth century Portuguese destruction of • Old oceanic trade • Main Islamic city-states along the coast Long-term influence of Portuguese is scarce Oman – strong eastern Arabian state Captured Mombasa – ejected Portuguese Zanzibar – new and major power center Clove cultivation “Great Zimbabwe” Purely African society in southeastern Africa Never impacted by Islam Bantu-speaking Shona people Large, prosperous state – thirteenth through fifteenth centuries “Great Zimbabwe” Two major building complexes Chinese, Syrian, Persian glass and porcelain Link to the East African coast – thirteenth century Eventual split into northern and southern states Portugal and Southeastern Africa Goal was to acquire gold from interior Little lasting profit from venture Fortified posts along Zambezi River Conflict in southeastern Africa Portuguese defeated by Changamire Shona Creation of quasi-tribal chiefdoms Prazeros – mixed-blood Portuguese landholders Clanlike groups of mixed-blood members Destabilizing influence in region Cape Colony Dutch are first arrivals Initially a resupply point and way station Eventual growth of large settler community Khoikhoi – pastoralists No strong political organization Bartered livestock with Dutch • For iron, copper and tobacco Khoikhoi fall under Dutch control by 1670’s Chief source of colonial wage labor Afrikaners Khoikhoi identified with imported slaves Stripped of own pasturages by 1700 Way of life being destroyed Smallpox arrives in the eighteenth century Trekboers – nomadic white livestock farmers Afrikaners – Trekboers and settled colonists Laws designed to halt mixing between Afrikaners and Africans Sociopolitical foundations of later apartheid