Energy_density

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Energy density Energy density Energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit volume, or per unit mass, depending on the context, although the latter is more formally specific energy [5]. In some cases it is obvious from context which quantity is most useful: for example, in rocketry, energy per unit mass is the most important parameter, but when studying pressurized gas or magnetohydrodynamics the energy per unit volume is more appropriate. In a few applications (comparing, for example, the effectiveness of hydrogen fuel to gasoline) both figures are appropriate and should be called out explicitly. (Hydrogen has a higher energy density per unit mass than does gasoline, but a much lower energy density per unit volume) Energy per unit volume has the same physical units as pressure, and in many circumstances is an exact synonym: for example, the energy density of the magnetic field may be expressed as (and behaves as) a physical pressure, and the energy required to compress a gas may be determined by multiplying the pressure of the compressed gas by its change in volume. the context of fuel selection, that energy density of a fuel is also called the specific energy of that fuel, though in general an engine using that fuel will yield less energy due to inefficiencies and thermodynamic considerations—hence the specific fuel consumption of an engine will be greater than the reciprocal of the specific energy of the fuel. The highest density sources of energy are fusion and fission. Fusion includes energy from the sun which will be available for billions of years (in the form of sunlight) but humans have not learned to make our own sustained fusion power sources. Fission of U-235 in nuclear power plants will be available for billions of years because of the vast supply of the element on earth [6]. Coal and petroleum are the current primary energy sources in the U.S. but have a much lower energy density. Burning local biomass fuels supplies household energy needs (cooking fires, oil lamps, etc.) worldwide. Energy density (how much energy you can carry) does not tell you about energy conversion efficiency (net output per input) or embodied energy (what the energy output costs to provide, as harvesting, refining, distributing, and dealing with pollution all use energy). Like any process occurring on a large scale, intensive energy use creates environmental impacts: for example, global warming, nuclear waste storage, and deforestation are a few of the consequences of supplying our growing energy demands from fossil fuels, nuclear fission, or biomass. By dividing by 3.6 the figures for megajoules per kilogram can be converted to kilowatt-hours per kilogram. Unfortunately, the useful energy available by extraction from an energy store is always less than the energy put into the energy store, as explained by the laws of thermodynamics. No single energy storage method boasts the best in specific power, specific energy, and energy density. Peukert’s Law describes how the amount of energy we get out depends how quickly we pull it out. Gravimetric and volumetric energy density of some fuels and storage technologies (modified from the Gasoline article): Energy density in energy storage and in fuel Selected Energy Densities Plot In energy storage application the energy density relates the mass of an energy store to its stored energy. The higher the energy density, the more energy may be stored or transported for the same amount of mass. In 1 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Note: Some values may not be precise because of isomers or other irregularities. See Heating value for a comprehensive table of specific energies of important fuels. Energy density have expounded on the concept of energy in empty space. Modern physics is commonly classified into two fundamental theories: quantum field theory and general relativity. Quantum field theory takes quantum mechanics and special relativity into account, and it’s a theory of all the forces and particles except gravity. General relativity is a theory of gravity, but it is incompatible with quantum mechanics. Currently these two theories have not yet been reconciled into one unified description, though research into "quantum gravity" seeks to bridge this divide. In general relativity, the cosmological constant is proportional to the energy density of empty space, and can be measured by the curvature of space. It is subsequently related to the age of the universe, and as energy expands outwards with time its density changes. Quantum field theory considers the vacuum ground state not to be completely empty, but to consist of a seething mass of virtual particles and fields. These fields are quantified as probabilities—that is, the likelihood of manifestation based on conditions. Since these fields do not have a permanent existence, they are called vacuum fluctuations. In the Casimir effect, two metal plates can cause a change in the vacuum energy density between them which generates a measurable force. Some believe that vacuum energy might be the "dark energy" (also called Quintessence) associated with the cosmological constant in general relativity, thought to be similar to a negative force of gravity (or antigravity). Observations that the expanding universe appears to be accelerating seem to support the cosmic inflation theory—first proposed by Alan Guth in 1981—in which the nascent universe passed through a phase of exponential expansion driven by a negative vacuum energy density (positive vacuum pressure). True energy densities This table gives the energy density of a complete system, including all needed oxidisers. Energy densities excluding oxidisers This table lists energy densities of fuels that require external oxidisers, such as oxygen. These figures do not take into account the mass and volume of the oxygen required for the chemical reactions, as it is assumed to be freely available and present in the atmosphere. Such systems give a higher energy density than an equivalent system that must hold its own oxidiser. Energy density of electric and magnetic fields Electric and magnetic fields store energy. In a vacuum, the (volumetric) energy density (in SI units) is given by , where E is the electric field and B is the magnetic field. In the context of magnetohydrodynamics, the physics of conductive fluids, the magnetic energy density behaves like an additional pressure that adds to the gas pressure of a plasma. In normal (linear) substances, the energy density (in SI units) is , where D is the electric displacement field and H is the magnetizing field. Energy density of food Energy density is the amount of energy (kilojoules or calories) per amount of food, with food amount being measured in grams or milliliters of food. Energy density is thus expressed in cal/g, kcal/g, J/g, kJ/g, cal/mL, kcal/mL, J/mL, or kJ/mL. What is popularly referred to as the number of "Calories" in a Energy density of empty space In physics, "vacuum energy" or "zero-point energy" is the volumetric energy density of empty space. More recent developments 2 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Energy Densities Table Storage type Energy density by mass (MJ/kg) 89,876,000,000 Energy density by volume (MJ/L) Energy density Peak recov- Practical reery covery efficiency % efficiency % Mass-energy equivalence Nuclear fusion of hydrogen (en- 645,000,000 ergy from the sun) Deuterium-Tritium fusion 337,000,000 1,500,000,000 50% Nuclear fission (of 100% U-235) 88,250,000 (Used in nuclear power plants) Natural uranium (99.3% U-238, 0.7% U-235) in fast breeder reactor[7] Enriched uranium (3.5% U235) in light water reactor Hf-178m2 isomer 24,000,000 3,456,000 1,326,000 17,649,060 30% Natural uranium (0.7% U235) in 443,000 light water reactor Ta-180m isomer Specific orbital energy of Low Earth orbit (approximate) Cl2O7 + CH4 - computed Nitromethane Octanitrocubane explosive computed Tetranitrotetrahedrane explosive - computed Heptanitrocubane explosive computed Dinitroacetylene explosive computed Sodium (reacted with chlorine) Tetranitrocubane explosive computed Tetranitromethane + hydrazine bipropellant - computed Hexanitrobenzene explosive computed Octogen explosive - computed ANFO-ANNM TNT [Kinney, G.F.; K.J. Graham (1985). Explosive shocks in air. 41,340 33 17.4 11.3 8.5 8.3 8.2 7.9 7.0349 6.95 12.7 12.9 17 689,964 30% Cl2O7 decomposition - computed 12.2 Ammonal (Al+NH4NO3 oxidizer) 6.9 6.6 6.5 6.3 6.26 4.610 6.92 3 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-15147-8. ] Copper Thermite (Al + CuO as oxidizer) 4.13 20.9 18.4 3.8 29 Energy density Thermite (powder Al + Fe2O3 as 4.00 oxidizer) Hydrogen peroxide decomposition (as monopropellant) battery, Lithium ion nanowire battery, Lithium Thionyl Chloride (LiSOCl2) [9] Water 220.64 bar, 373.8°C Kinetic energy penetrator battery, Fluoride ion [10] battery, Hydrogen closed cycle H fuel cell[11]sm=n Hydrazine(toxic) decomposition (as monopropellant) Ammonium nitrate decomposition (as monopropellant) Capacitor by EEStor (claimed prototype capacity) [12] 2.7 2.54 2.5 1.968 1.9 1.7 1.62 1.6 1.4 1.2 95%[8] 0.708 30 2.8 1.6 2.5 5.7 99% 99% Thermal energy storage(Molten 1 Salt) approximate Molecular spring approximate battery, Sodium Sulfur Liquid nitrogen battery, Lithium ion[4][5] battery, Lithium Sulphur[7] battery, Silver-oxide[1] 5.56 × 45 mm NATO bullet battery, Nickel metal hydride (NiMH), low power design as used in consumer batteries[8] battery, Zinc-manganese (alkaline), long life design[4][1] Ice(Ice) battery, Zinc Bromine flow (ZnBr)[9] battery, Nickel metal hydride (NiMH), High Power design as used in cars[10] battery, Nickel cadmium (NiCd)[4] 1 0 0.77[3] 0.46-0.54 1.26 0.47 0.4 0.4 1.23 [13] 1.98-2.09 0.62 0.83-0.9 1.26 1.8 3.2 1.55 95%[6] 85%[14] battery, Lithium-manganese[1][2] 0.83-1.01 0.4-0.59 0.335 0.27 0.250 1.15-1.43 0.335 0.493 0.14 1.08 80%[6] 4 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia battery, Zinc-Carbon[4] battery, Lead acid[4] battery, Vanadium redox battery, Vanadium Bromide redox Flywheel Capacitor Ultracapacitor Capacitor Supercapacitor Capacitor Water at 100 m dam height 0.13 0.14 0.09 [15] 0.18 [16] 0.0325[17] 0.0206 [18] 0.01 0.002 [21] 0.001 0.001 0.0006 Energy density by volume (MJ/L) 0.050 [19] 98.5% 0.331 0.36 0.1188 0.252 Energy density 7070-75% 81% 90%[20] 8585-90%[22] Spring power (clock spring), tor- 0.0003 [23] sion spring Storage type Energy density by mass (MJ/kg) Peak recov- Practical reery covery efficiency % efficiency % portion of food (invariably spelled with a capital C to show that it is the food Calorie) is therefore the number of kilocalories (thousands of calories with the small c) in the portion. Energy density measures the energy released when the food is metabolised by a healthy organism when it ingests the food (see food energy for calculation) and the food is metabolized with oxygen, into waste products such as carbon dioxide and water. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are the only sources of energy for an individual abstaining from alcohol, and they make up ninety percent of the dry weight of food.[19] Therefore, water content is the most important factor in energy density. Carbohydrates and proteins provide four calories per gram, whereas fat provides nine calories per gram, 2.25 times as much energy. Foods that derive most of their energy from fat have a much higher energy density than those that derive most of their energy from carbohydrates or proteins, even if the water content is the same. Nutrients with a lower absorption, such as fiber or sugar alcohols, lower the energy density of foods as well. A moderate energy density would be 1.6 to 3 calories per gram; salmon, lean meat, and bread would fall in this category. High-energy foods would have more than three calories per gram and include crackers, cheese, dark chocolate, and peanuts.[20] The energy density of a food can be determined from the label by dividing the calories or joules by the weight in grams. Miscellaneous • Kinetic energy per unit mass: J/kg, where v is the speed in m/s. See also kinetic energy per unit mass of projectiles. • Potential energy with respect to gravity, close to earth , per unit mass: ca. 9.8 h J/kg, with h the heigh • Heat: energies per unit mass are specific heat capacity times temperature difference, and specific melting heat, and specific heat of vaporization See also • • • • • • • Figure of merit Energy content of biofuel Heat of combustion Heating value Rechargeable battery Specific impulse Vacuum energy External references Zero point energy 1. Eric Weisstein’s world of physics: energy density [33] 2. Baez physics: Is there a nonzero cosmological constant? [34]; What’s the Energy Density of the Vacuum?. 5 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Energy Densities Table Storage type Energy density by mass (MJ/kg) Energy density Energy density Peak recov- Practical reby volume ery covery (MJ/L) efficiency % efficiency % 10.1 5.6 0.01079 125.1 43.4 137.8 0.0378 10 25.3 27.7 34.2 37.3 42.6 41.7 33.72 25.65 23.0 33 33 37.8 37[11] Hydrogen, liquid (burned in 143 air) Hydrogen, compressed at 143 700 bar (burned in air) [24] Hydrogen, gas (burned in air) 143 Beryllium (toxic) (burned in 67.6 air) Lithium borohydride (burned in air) Boron [25] (burned in air) Methane (1.013bar, 15°C) (burned in air) Natural gas (burned in air) LPG propane (burned in air)[12] LPG butane (burned in air)[12] Gasoline[12] 65.2 58.9 55.6 53.6[11] 49.6 49.1 46.4 Diesel fuel/residential heat- 46.2 ing oil (burned in air)[12] Polyethylene plastic Polypropylene plastic Gasohol E10 (10% ethanol 90% gasoline by volume) Gasohol E85 (85% ethanol 10% gasoline by volume) Lithium (burned in air) Jet A aviation fuel [26] / kerosene Biodiesel oil (vegetable oil) DMF (2,5-dimethylfuran) Crude oil (according to the definition of ton of oil equivalent) Polystyrene plastic Body fat metabolism Butanol Graphite (burned in air) coal, Anthracite Silicon (burned in air)[28] 46.3[13] 46.4[13] 43.54 33.1 43.1 42.8 42.20 42 [27] 46.3 41.4[13] 38 36.6 32.7 32.5 32.2 43.5 35 29.2 72.9 72.4 75.1 36 22[14] 6 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Aluminum (burned in air) Ethanol Polyester plastic Magnesium (burned in air) coal, Bituminous [29] PET plastic Methanol Hydrazine (toxic) combusted to N2+H2O 31.0 30 26.0 [13] 24.7 24 23.5 (impure) [30] 19.7 19.5 15.6 19.3 11.5 25.2 83.8 24 35.6 43.0 20 Energy density Liquid ammonia (combusted 18.6 to N2+H2O) PVC plastic (improper com- 18.0[13] bustion toxic) Peat briquette [15] Sugars, carbohydrates & protein metabolism coal, Lignite Calcium (burned in air) Glucose Dry cowdung and cameldung Wood 17.7 17 14.0 15.9 15.55 15.5 [32] 6.0 26.2(dextrose) 2222 [31] 24.6 23.9 Sodium (burned to wet sodi- 13.3 um hydroxide) Household waste Sod peat 8.0[16][17] 12.8 12.8 Sodium (burned to dry sodi- 9.1 um oxide) Zinc (burned in air) Teflon plastic (combustion toxic, but flame retardant) iron (burned to iron(III) oxide) iron (burned to iron(II) oxide) battery, Zinc air[18] Storage type 5.3 5.1 5.2 4.9 1.59 Energy density by mass (MJ/kg) 8.8 38.0 11.2 40.68 38.2 6.02 Energy density Peak recov- Practical reby volume ery covery (MJ/L) efficiency % efficiency % 3. Introductory review of cosmic inflation [35] 4. An exposition to inflationary cosmology [36] Density data • ^ "Aircraft Fuels." Energy, Technology and the Environment Ed. Attilio Bisio. Vol. 1. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1995. 257-259 7 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia • “Fuels of the Future for Cars and Trucks” - Dr. James J. Eberhardt - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy - 2002 Diesel Engine Emissions Reduction (DEER) Workshop San Diego, California - August 25 - 29, 2002 Energy density 2009-02-26. "Table 3: Input and Output Energy from Batteries" [7] "Lithium Sulfur Rechargeable Battery Data Sheet". Sion Power, Inc.. 2005-09-28. http://www.sionpower.com/ pdf/sion_product_spec.pdf. [8] Advanced Materials for Next Generation NiMH Batteries, Ovonic, 2008 [9] "ZBB Energy Corp". Archived from the original on 2007-10-15. http://web.archive.org/web/ 20071015134212/http://zbbenergy.com/ technology.htm. "75 to 85 watt-hours per kilogram" [10] High Energy Metal Hydride Battery [11] ^ Envestra Limited. Natural Gas. Retrieved 2008-10-05 [12] ^ IOR Energy. List of common conversion factors (Engineering conversion factors). Retrieved 2008-10-05 [13] ^ [2] [14] Justin Lemire-Elmore (2004-04-13). "The Energy Cost of Electric and HumanPowered Bicycles". 5. http://www.ebikes.ca/sustainability/ Ebike_Energy.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-02-26. "properly trained athlete will have efficiencies of 22 to 26%" [15] Bord na Mona, Peat for Energy. [3] [16] David E. Dirkse. energy buffers. "household waste 8..11 MJ/kg" [17] [4] [18] "Technical bulletin on Zinc-air batteries". Duracell. http://www.duracell.com/oem/ primary/Zinc/zinc_air_tech.asp. Retrieved on 20090421. [19] Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Fats: Overview of Nutrition. The Merck Manual. [20] The Okinawa Diet: Caloric Density Pyramid. Energy storage • energy fundamentals • Energy Density Field Theory Books • The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins by Alan H. Guth (1998) ISBN 0-201-32840-2 • Cosmological Inflation and Large-Scale Structure by Andrew R. Liddle, David H. Lyth (2000) ISBN 0-521-57598-2 • Richard Becker, "Electromagnetic Fields and Interactions", Dover Publications Inc., 1964 Footnotes [1] ^ "ProCell Lithium battery chemistry". Duracell. http://www.duracell.com/ Procell/chemistries/lithium.asp. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. [2] "Properties of non-rechargeable lithium batteries". corrosion-doctors.org. http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/ PrimBatt/table2.htm. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. [3] C. Knowlen, A.T. Mattick, A.P. Bruckner and A. Hertzberg, "High Efficiency Conversion Systems for Liquid Nitrogen Automobiles", Society of Automotive Engineers Inc, 1988. [4] ^ "Battery energy storage in various battery types". AllAboutBatteries.com. http://www.allaboutbatteries.com/ Battery-Energy.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. [5] A typically available lithium ion cell with an Energy Density of 201 wh/kg [1] [6] ^ Justin Lemire-Elmore (2004-04-13). "The Energy Cost of Electric and HumanPowered Bicycles". 7. http://www.ebikes.ca/sustainability/ Ebike_Energy.pdf. Retrieved on Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density" Categories: Fundamental physics concepts, Energy storage, Density, Energy density 8 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Energy density This page was last modified on 18 May 2009, at 16:24 (UTC). All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) taxdeductible nonprofit charity. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers 9