Table of Contents- Report to Congress on Cement Kiln Dust

CONTENTS REPORT TO CONGRESS ON CEMENT KILN DUST Volume II: Methods and Findings LIST OF ACRONYMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GENERAL METHODS AND INFORMATION SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 General Analytical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 EPA Data Collection Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. B. C. D. E. 1.2 1.3 1991 Portland Cement Association (PCA) Survey of Cement Kiln Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1992 and 1993 CKD Sampling and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Damage Case Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EPA Site Visits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RCRA §3007 Waste and Site Characteristics Data Request . . . 1-1 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-4 1-4 1-5 1-5 1-7 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-5 2-9 Page EPA'S DECISION MAKING RATIONALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONTENTS AND ORGANIZATION OF REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER TWO: CEMENT INDUSTRY OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 2.1 INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION OF CKD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CEMENT INDUSTRY STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 What Is Cement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 The Cement Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 CEMENT MANUFACTURING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 The Basic Production Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grinding and Blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pre-Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drying and Preheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calcining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Burning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Finish Milling/Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10 2-10 2-13 2-13 2-13 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-16 2.2.2 Kiln Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16 Wet Process Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dry Process Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preheater Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Precalciner Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Semidry Process Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18 2-19 2-21 2-23 2-23 ii CONTENTS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Page Trends in Kiln Technology and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25 2.2.3 Process Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26 Raw (Feed) Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fossil Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-hazardous Waste Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hazardous Waste Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of the Hazardous Waste Fuels Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Extent of Hazardous Waste Consumption by Cement Kilns and Types of Waste Burned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hazardous Waste Fuel Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relevant Environmental Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 2-26 2-33 2-37 2-39 2-40 2-40 2-41 2-42 2-42 SUMMARY AND RELEVANCE TO SUBSEQUENT CHAPTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-43 3-1 3-1 3-1 3-2 3-2 CHAPTER THREE: CKD GENERATION AND CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CKD GENERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Dust Collection Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Plant-Level CKD Generation Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 Quantities and Fate of CKD Generated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16 Differences in CKD Generation Rates Across Process Types . . . . . . Differences in CKD Generation Rates Across Process Types and Fuel Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Differences in Gross CKD Generation Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Differences in Net CKD Generation Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CKD Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recycling Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Differences in Fate of CKD Across Process Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Differences in Fate of CKD Across Process Types and Fuel Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 3-16 3-18 3-18 3-19 3-19 3-21 3-21 3-22 CKD GROSS CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25 3.2.1 Physical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25 3.2.2 Bulk Chemical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-29 3.3 CKD TRACE CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 3.3.1 EPA Sampling Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 3.3.2 Total Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dioxins and Furans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Volatile Organics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33 3-37 3-41 3-41 iii CONTENTS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Semi-Volatile Organics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PCBs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-44 3-44 3-45 3-45 3.3.3 Leachable Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-47 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dioxins and Furans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Volatile Organics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Semi-Volatile Organics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PCBs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 3-47 3-50 3-50 3-50 3-50 3-52 3-52 3-52 STATISTICAL ANALYSES OF CKD CHARACTERIZATION RESULTS . . . . . . 3-53 3.4.1 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-53 3.4.2 Dioxins and Furans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-61 3.5 CLINKER CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-62 4-1 4-1 4-1 4-2 4-2 4-2 4-3 4-3 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-6 4-7 4-9 CHAPTER FOUR: CURRENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR CKD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 4.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON-SITE LAND DISPOSAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.4 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.5 Codisposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.6 Remaining Useful Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 POTENTIAL EXPOSURE PATHWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Ground Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Surface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION PRACTICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BENEFICIAL USE OF CKD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Waste Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10 iv CONTENTS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Page 4.4.2 Soil Amendment (Fertilizer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12 4.4.3 Liming Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12 4.4.4 Materials Additive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12 4.4.5 Road Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 4.4.6 Other Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 CHAPTER FIVE: DOCUMENTED DAMAGES FROM MANAGEMENT OF CKD . . . . . . . 5.0 INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "Tests of Proof" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identification of Prospective Damage Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Information Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Damage Case Preparation and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Damage Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 OVERVIEW OF FINDINGS, TRENDS, AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Overall Trends and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 DOCUMENTED GROUND AND SURFACE WATER DAMAGE CASE SUMMARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cases of Documented Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Holnam Incorporated, Mason City, Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 5-1 5-1 5-2 5-2 5-3 5-3 5-4 5-4 5-5 5-9 5-9 5-9 5.2.2 Lehigh Portland Cement Company, Leeds, Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14 5.2.3 Lehigh Portland Cement Company, Mason City, Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17 5.2.4 Portland Cement Company, Salt Lake City, Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22 5.2.5 Southwestern Portland Cement (Southdown, Inc.), Fairborn, Ohio . . 5-26 5.2.6 National Gypsum Co./Lafarge Corp., Alpena, Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32 5.2.7 Ash Grove Cement West, Montana City, Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34 5.3 CASES OF POTENTIAL DAMAGE TO GROUND AND SURFACE WATER . . . 5-37 5.3.1 Texas Industries, Inc., Midlothian, Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-37 5.3.2 Holnam, Inc., Artesia, Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-40 5.3.3 Markey Machinery Property, Seattle, Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-41 5.4 5.5 DOCUMENTED AIR DAMAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-45 CKD MANAGEMENT SCENARIOS OF CONCERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-49 v CONTENTS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Page CHAPTER SIX: POTENTIAL DANGER TO HUMAN HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purpose and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major Results and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 INITIAL RISK SCREENING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Approach and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6-1 6-2 6-4 6-6 6-6 CKD Composition Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6 Risk-Screening Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7 Other Constituent-Specific Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10 6.1.2 Risk-Screening Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11 6.2 EVALUATION OF RISKS WHEN CKD IS MANAGED ON SITE . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14 6.2.1 Risk Potential Ranking of Initial Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15 Approach and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results of Risk Potential Ranking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risk Potential Ranking for the Ground-water Pathway . . . . . . . . Risk Potential Ranking for the Surface Water Pathway . . . . . . . . Risk Potential Ranking for the Air Pathway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15 6-19 6-20 6-23 6-26 6.2.2 Risk Modeling of On-site CKD Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-29 Analytical Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Release, Fate, and Transport Modeling Methodology . . . . . . . . . Characterization of Exposed Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exposure Assessment and Risk Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . Sensitivity Analysis of Higher Risk Potential Scenarios . . . . . . . . Results of On-site Risk Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baseline On-site CKD Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sensitivity Analysis of Potentially Higher Risk Scenarios . . . . . . 6-29 6-32 6-34 6-35 6-38 6-40 6-40 6-45 6.2.3 Summary of Risks from On-site CKD Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-51 Ground-Water Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surface Water Risks to Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aquatic Ecological Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air Pathway Risks from Windblown Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 6-51 6-52 6-52 6-52 EVALUATION OF RISKS FROM OFF-SITE BENEFICIAL USES OF CKD . . . . 6-53 6.3.1 Approach and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-54 6.3.2 Hazardous Waste Stabilization and Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-54 6.3.3 Sewage Sludge Treatment and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-56 vi CONTENTS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Page 6.3.4 Building Materials Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-57 6.3.5 Road Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-58 Analysis of Risk Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-58 Risk Modeling Results for Unpaved Traffic Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-59 6.3.6 Agricultural Liming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-60 Analysis of Risk Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-60 Risk Modeling Results for Liming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-62 6.3.7 Summary of Risks from Off-site Beneficial Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-63 CHAPTER SEVEN: EXISTING REGULATORY CONTROLS ON CKD MANAGEMENT . 7.0 INTRODUCTION AND METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0.3 Summary of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0.4 Limitations of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 AIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 Federal Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clean Air Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implementing Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . State Implementation Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Source Performance Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prevention of Significant Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonattainment Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hazardous Air Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boiler and Industrial Furnace Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.2 State Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ambient Air Quality Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Authority To Construct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Permit To Operate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prevention of Significant Deterioration and New Source Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ambient Air Quality and Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Particulate Matter and Visible Emissions Limitations . . . . . . . . . Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonattainment Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Particulate Matter and Visible Emissions Limitations . . . . . . . . . Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Requirements Applicable to Cement Plants . . . . . . . . . . . Special Report on Texas Cement Plants' Excess Emissions . . . 7-1 7-1 7-1 7-1 7-2 7-4 7-5 7-5 7-5 7-5 7-5 7-6 7-6 7-7 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-11 7-12 7-12 7-13 7-13 7-14 7-14 7-15 7-15 7-16 7-16 7-18 vii CONTENTS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings 7.2 Page WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18 7.2.1 Federal Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18 The Clean Water Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18 Safe Drinking Water Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-20 7.2.2 State Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21 California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process Wastewater Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Quality Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stormwater Management Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Quality Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ground-Water Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Quality Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ground-Water Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stormwater Management Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Quality Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ground-Water Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stormwater Management Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-22 7-23 7-23 7-24 7-24 7-25 7-25 7-25 7-26 7-26 7-27 7-27 7-28 7-28 7-29 7.3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29 7.3.1 Federal Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-30 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-30 Boiler and Industrial Furnace Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-31 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-32 7.3.2 State Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-32 California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-33 7-36 7-37 7-40 8-1 8-1 8-2 8-2 8-3 8-5 8-5 8-6 CHAPTER EIGHT: ALTERNATIVE CKD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND POTENTIAL UTILIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.0 8.1 OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MINIMIZATION OF CKD REMOVAL FROM THE KILN SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 Control of CKD Generation Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.2 Direct Return of CKD to the Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Return to Flame End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Return with Raw Feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3 Treatment and Return of CKD to the Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii CONTENTS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Page Pelletizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 Leaching with Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 Leaching with a Potassium Chloride Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 Alkali Volatilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 Recovery Scrubbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9 Fluid Bed Dust Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13 8.2 BENEFICIAL USE OF REMOVED CKD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16 8.2.1 Stabilization of Sludges, Wastes, and Contaminated Soils . . . . . . . . 8-17 Sewage Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oil Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous Wastes and Contaminated Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17 8-21 8-22 8-23 8.2.2 Soil Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24 8.2.3 Land Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24 8.2.4 Agricultural Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25 Fertilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25 Liming Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28 8.2.5 Livestock Feed Ingredient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28 8.2.6 Lime-Alum Coagulation in Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-31 8.2.7 Construction Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-31 Blending with Portland Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CKD as the Only Blending Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CKD as a Co-Blending Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use as a Road Base Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-32 8-32 8-33 8-34 8.2.8 Sanitary Landfill Daily Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-35 8.2.9 Mineral Filler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36 8.2.10 Lightweight Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36 8.2.11 Glass Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36 8.3 8.4 ON-SITE LAND DISPOSAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-36 SUMMARY AND FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-38 8.4.1 Technical Feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-43 8.4.2 Human Health/Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-44 8.4.3 Economic Feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-44 8.4.4 Current Extent of Use and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-45 ix CONTENTS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Page CHAPTER NINE: COST AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF ALTERNATIVES TO CURRENT CKD DISPOSAL PRACTICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9.0 9.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPROACH AND METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.1 Data Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9-1 9-2 9.1.2 Approach to Estimating Costs and Impacts of CKD Management Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2 Case Study Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2 Methods for Estimating Facility Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3 Methods for Extrapolating from the Case Study Sample to the Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4 9.1.3 Cost Accounting Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5 9.1.4 Limitations of the Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5 9.2 DESCRIPTIONS AND COSTS OF BASELINE AND ALTERNATIVE CKD MANAGEMENT METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6 9.2.1 Current Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7 Direct Recycling of Collected Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8 Off-Site Beneficial Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9 Current Land Disposal Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9 9.2.2 Alternative Land Disposal Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-10 Conventional Subtitle C Technology and Administrative Standards Subtitle C Costs (Exclusive of Corrective Action Costs) . . . . . . . Potential Subtitle C Corrective Action Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alternative Subtitle C Costs Under RCRA §3004(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tailored Contaminant Release Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-10 9-11 9-11 9-14 9-15 9.2.3 Alternative On-Site CKD Recycling and Recovery Techniques . . . . . 9-19 Increasing Direct CKD Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovative CKD Recovery Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alkali Leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fluid Bed Dust Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Passamaquoddy Technology Flue Gas Desulfurization Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-19 9-20 9-22 9-26 9-28 9.2.4 Other Operating Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-31 Revised Standards for Cement Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-31 Curtailing Use of Hazardous Waste Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-32 9.2.5 Summary of the Costs of Alternative CKD Management Methods . . 9-34 9.3 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES . . . . 9-37 x CONTENTS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Page 9.3.1 Individual Plant-Level Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-37 9.3.2 Nationwide Cement Industry Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-40 9.3.3 Conclusions and Relationships to Regulatory Requirements . . . . . . 9-43 CHAPTER TEN: STUDY FINDINGS AND REGULATORY OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 10.1 Study Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 10.1.1 Sources and Volumes of Waste (Study Factor 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 10.1.2 Waste Management Practices (Study Factors 2 and 8) . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2 10.1.3 Waste Characteristics and Potential Risks to Human Health and the Environment (Study Factor 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2 10.1.4 Documented Evidence of Damage (Study Factor 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 10.1.5 Potential Costs and Impacts of Subtitle C Regulation (Study Factors 5, 6, and 7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 10.2 10.3 Environmental Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 10.3.1 Decision Rationale and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 10.3.2 Regulatory Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7 10.3.3 Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-11 GLOSSARY BIBLIOGRAPHY LIST OF EXHIBITS REPORT TO CONGRESS ON CEMENT KILN DUST Volume II: Methods and Findings Exhibit 2-1 Exhibit 2-2 Exhibit 2-3 Exhibit 2-4 Exhibit 2-5 Exhibit 2-6 Exhibit 2-7 Exhibit 2-8 Exhibit 2-9 Exhibit 2-10 Exhibit 2-11 Exhibit 2-12 Exhibit 2-13 Exhibit 2-14 Exhibit 2-15 Exhibit 2-16 Exhibit 2-17 Exhibit 2-18 Exhibit 2-19 Exhibit 2-20 Exhibit 2-21 Exhibit 2-22 Exhibit 2-23 Exhibit 2-24 Exhibit 3-1 Exhibit 3-2 General Cement Types and Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1990 Clinker Production by State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geographic Distribution of Active Portland Cement Production Facilities in 1991 in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Clinker Capacity for the Period 1973-1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-2 2-6 2-7 2-9 Steps in the Manufacture of Portland Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11 Material Temperature Ranges in the Kiln Portion of the Cement Manufacturing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14 Typical Energy Requirements for Each Kiln Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18 Typical Process Flow Diagram for a Wet Process Cement Kiln . . . . . 2-20 Typical Process Flow Diagram for a Suspension Flash Preheater Cement Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22 Typical Process Flow Diagram for a Precalciner Coal and Waste Fired Cement Kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-24 Age and Capacity of Existing Kilns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25 Feed Mixtures in 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28 Feed Mixtures in 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29 Raw Material Consumption in 1990 and 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30 Typical Composition of Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31 Typical Feed Mixtures in 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32 Cement Kiln Fuel Consumption in 1990 and 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34 Cement Kiln Fuel Mixtures in 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35 Cement Kiln Fuel Mixtures in 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36 Average Coal Composition by Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38 Coal Producing Regions of the United States and Coal Types Produced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38 Nominal Fossil Fuel Prices in 1985 and 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39 Breakdown of Solid Waste Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-40 Breakdown of Hazardous Waste Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-41 Flow Chart of Gross CKD Management Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air Pollution Control Devices Used at Cement Kilns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 3-4 xii LIST OF EXHIBITS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Exhibit 3-3 Exhibit 3-4 Exhibit 3-5 Exhibit 3-6 Exhibit 3-7 Exhibit 3-8 Exhibit 3-9 Exhibit 3-10 Exhibit 3-11 Exhibit 3-12 Exhibit 3-13 Exhibit 3-14 Exhibit 3-15 Exhibit 3-16 Exhibit 3-17 Exhibit 3-18 Exhibit 3-19 Exhibit 3-20 Exhibit 3-21 Exhibit 3-22 Exhibit 3-23 Exhibit 3-24 Exhibit 3-25 Exhibit 3-26 Schematic Diagrams of Common Types of Air Pollution Control Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1990 Gross CKD Collection by Different Types of Air Pollution Control Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship Between Net and Gross CKD Generated in 1990 . . . . . Page 3-5 3-7 3-8 Gross and Net CKD Generated (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10 Share of Net CKD Generated and Clinker Production Capacity (1990) 3-11 Facilities With High Net CKD Generation Relative to Clinker Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12 Percentages of Gross CKD Recycled, Sold, and Wasted (1990) . . . . 3-13 Recycling Rates Among Facilities That Operate Dry Kilns . . . . . . . . . 3-14 Recycling Rates Among Facilities That Operate Wet Kilns . . . . . . . . 3-15 Average CKD Generation Rates Per Ton of Product (1990) . . . . . . . . 3-17 Fate of CKD as a Percent of Gross CKD (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23 Particle Size Distribution of CKD by Process Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26 Particle Size Distribution of CKD Midwest Portland Cement Company, Zanesville, Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27 Hydraulic Conductivity of Freshly Generated and Managed CKD . . . 3-29 Typical CKD Bulk Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31 Trace Metal Concentrations in As Generated CKD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-34 Trace Metal Concentrations in As Managed CKD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36 Trace Elements Commonly Found in Native Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-37 Total Concentrations of Dioxins and Dibenzofurans in As Generated CKD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-39 Total Concentrations of Dioxins and Dibenzofurans in As Managed CKD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-40 Summary of Dioxin and Dibenzofuran Concentrations in CKD . . . . . 3-42 Summary of Combined 1992-1993 Dioxin/Furan Sampling Results CKD 2,3,7,8, TCDD Toxicity Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-43 Comparison of Maximum and Average Metals Concentrations in As Generated Dust with TC Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-48 Comparison of Maximum and Average Metals Concentrations in As Managed Dust with TC Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-49 xiii LIST OF EXHIBITS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Exhibit 3-27 Exhibit 3-28 Exhibit 3-29 Exhibit 3-30 Exhibit 4-1 Exhibit 4-2 Exhibit 4-3 Exhibit 4-4 Exhibit 4-5 Exhibit 5-1 Exhibit 5-2 Exhibit 5-3 Exhibit 5-4 Exhibit 5-5 Exhibit 5-6 Exhibit 5-7 Exhibit 5-8 Exhibit 5-9 Exhibit 5-10 Exhibit 5-11 Exhibit 5-12 Exhibit 5-13 Exhibit 5-14 Exhibit 5-15 Exhibit 5-16 Page TCLP Concentrations of Dioxins and Dibenzofurans in As Generated CKD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-51 T-test Comparison of Fuel Burning Effects on Metals Concentrations 3-56 T-test Comparison of Kiln Type on Metals Concentrations . . . . . . . . 3-58 Analytical Results of Clinker Analyses for Inorganics By Fuel Type 1991 CKD Waste Management Unit Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remaining Life of Waste Management Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical Cement Plant Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-64 4-3 4-4 4-5 Environmental Protection Practices at CKD Waste Management Units Active in 1990, by Kiln Fuel Use Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 Estimated Off-Site Uses for CKD Sold/Given Away . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11 Summary of Cases of Documented and Potential Damage to Human Health and/or Environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Documented Water Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cases of Potential Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 5-6 5-8 Site Diagram – Holnam Incorporated, Mason City, Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10 Site Diagram – Lehigh Portland Cement Company, Leeds, Alabama 5-15 Site Diagram – Lehigh Portland Cement Company, Mason City, Iowa 5-18 Site Diagram – Lime Creek Nature Center (Lehigh Portland Cement), Mason City, Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19 Site Diagram – Portland Cement Company, Salt Lake City, Utah . . . 5-24 Site Diagram – Southwestern Portland Cement, Fairborn, Ohio . . . . 5-28 Summary of Exceedances of State Metals Limits Southwestern Portland Cement - Fairborn, Ohio Landfill #6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29 Site Diagram – National Gypsum Co./LaFarge Corp., Alpena, Michigan 5-33 Summary of Exceedances of State Metals Limits National Gypsum Co./Lafarge Corp., Alpena, Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34 Site Diagram – Ash Grove Cement West, Montana City, Montana . . . 5-36 Site Diagram – Texas Industries, Inc., Midlothian, Texas . . . . . . . . . . 5-38 Site Diagram – Holnam, Inc., Artesia, Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-42 Site Diagram – Markey Machinery Property, Seattle, Washington . . . 5-43 xiv LIST OF EXHIBITS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Exhibit 5-17 Exhibit 5-18 Exhibit 6-1 Exhibit 6-2 Exhibit 6-3 Exhibit 6-4 Exhibit 6-5 Exhibit 6-6 Exhibit 6-7 Exhibit 6-8 Exhibit 6-9 Exhibit 6-10 Exhibit 6-11 Exhibit 6-12 Exhibit 6-13 Exhibit 6-14 Exhibit 6-15 Exhibit 6-16 Exhibit 6-17 Exhibit 6-18 Exhibit 6-19 Exhibit 6-20 Exhibit 6-21 Page Summary of Air Damage Case Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-46 Example of CKD Disposal Adjacent to an Agricultural Field . . . . . . . 5-50 Overview of Risk Assessment Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 Basis for Risk-Screening Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9 CKD Constituents That Exceeded Risk-Screening Criteria at EPA Sample Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12 Comparison of 15 Sample Facilities to Other Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16 Site Specific Factors Used to Evaluate Risk Potential of On-Site CKD Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-18 Risk Potential Rankings for the Ground-water Pathway . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21 Risk Potential Rankings for the Surface Water Pathway . . . . . . . . . . 6-24 Particle Size Distribution of CKD by Kiln Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-27 Risk Potential Rankings for the Air Pathway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-28 Graphical Illustration of On-site Risk Modeling Scenarios . . . . . . . . . 6-31 Aquatic Ecological Benchmark Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-38 Baseline On-Site Management Cancer Risks for Direct Exposure Pathways for 15 Case Study Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-41 Baseline On-Site Management Cancer Risks for Foodchain Exposure Pathways for 15 Case Study Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-42 Constituents Contributing to Adverse Health Effects In On-site CKD Risk Modeling Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-43 Results of Central Tendency and High End Ecological Effects Analysis 6-45 Sensitivity Analysis of Maximum CDD/CDF Cancer Risks for Direct Exposure Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-46 Sensitivity Analysis of Maximum CDD/CDF Cancer Risks for Foodchain Exposure Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-47 Sensitivity Analysis of Location Adjacent to Agricultural Field for Foodchain Exposure Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-48 Sensitivity Analysis of Location Adjacent to Surface Water for Direct and Foodchain Exposure Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-49 Sensitivity Analysis of Highly Exposed Individuals for Foodchain Exposure Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-50 Off-site Beneficial Uses Examined in the Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . 6-54 xv LIST OF EXHIBITS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Exhibit 7-1 Exhibit 7-2 Exhibit 7-3 Exhibit 7-4 Exhibit 8-1 Exhibit 8-2 Exhibit 8-3 Exhibit 8-4 Exhibit 8-5 Exhibit 9-1 Exhibit 9-2 Exhibit 9-3 Exhibit 9-4 Exhibit 9-5 Exhibit 9-6 Exhibit 9-7 Exhibit 9-8 Exhibit 9-9 Exhibit 9-10 Exhibit 9-11 Exhibit 9-12 Exhibit 9-13 Exhibit 9-14 New Source Performance Standards for Portland Cement Plants . . . Page 7-7 Summary of State Air Pollution Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10 Summary of State Water Pollution Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21 Summary of State Solid Waste Management Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-33 Flow Chart of Gross CKD Management Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 Process Flow Diagram of Recovery Scrubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10 Process Flow Diagram of Fluid Bed Dust Recovery Process . . . . . . . 8-15 Summary of Alternatives for Minimization of CKD Removal from the Kiln System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-39 Summary of Alternatives for Beneficial Utilization of CKD Removed from the Kiln System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-41 Facilities Included in the Cost Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3 Subtitle C Disposal Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-12 Subtitle C-Minus Disposal Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-15 Tailored Contaminant Release Controls Costs: Continued Sales of CKD for Off-Site Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-17 Tailored Contaminant Release Controls Costs: Curtailed Sales of CKD for Off-Site Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-18 Key Design Conditions for the Nine Case Study Cement Plants . . . . 9-23 Estimated Incremental Net Costs for the Alkali Leaching System . . . 9-25 Estimated Incremental Net Costs for the Fuller Fluidized Bed System 9-27 Estimated Incremental Net Costs for the Passamaquoddy Technology Recovery Scrubbing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-30 Economic Benefits from Burning Hazardous Waste Fuels . . . . . . . . . 9-33 Total Incremental Annualized Costs of CKD Management Alternatives for EPA Case Study Cement Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-35 Annualized Incremental Costs of CKD Management Alternatives per Metric Ton of CKD for EPA Case Study Cement Plants . . . . . . . . . . . 9-36 Annualized Incremental Costs of CKD Management Alternatives per Metric Ton of Cement for EPA Case Study Cement Plants . . . . . . . . . 9-38 Capital Investment Requirements for Implementing CKD Management Alternatives for EPA Case Study Cement Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-39 xvi LIST OF EXHIBITS (continued) Volume II: Methods and Findings Exhibit 9-15 Page Incremental Costs of Alternative CKD Management Practices Relative to Value of Cement Sales (Incremental cost per ton of cement/revenue per ton of cement — cents per dollar of sales) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-41 Industry Wide Costs of Alternative Management Practices (Cost in $ Million) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-42 Exhibit 9-16