Racial Stereotypes and Education Reform: Black Youth and Education
Ethics of Development in a Global Environment Professor Bruce Lusignan Research Paper Desireé Conrad, Erica Douglas, & Brandan Richardson June 6, 2003
Table of Contents Section I: Factors and Stereotypes Impeding Black Male Education Brandan Richardson Section II: The Disparity Between Black Males and Higher Education By: Desireé Conrad Section III: The Case Study: Success Mirrored By Implemented Methods By: Erica Douglas Works Cited 1-9
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Section I: Factors and Stereotypes Impeding Black Male Education By: Brandan Richardson
Some critics argue that the education of black men should fall solely upon the shoulders of the black community. They place the blame for this groups‟ failure to successfully assimilate into the Eurocentric society on the parents, relatives, and all those who have a hand in their upbringing. However, before passing judgment perhaps they should take into consideration the many factors that cause a detrimental effect to the higher education of black men as a whole. No one variable can be identified as the cause as to why some black children, youth, and college students are academically unsuccessful. From the onset of not only their educational careers but also their lives, black men collectively are at an emotional, physical, and social disadvantage compared to the majority of their white counterparts. These emotional and social disadvantages stem from many sources and it is from these sources that the stigma and stereotypes associated with black men arise. One of the main contributors to this incessant problem is the slow movement in our society to recognize all people as equal and entitled to the same life experiences, if they should so choose, regardless of one‟s skin color (Berry & Asamen pg.15). Dating back a period of 300 years when their ancestors were first brought over to this country from Africa, black males as well as black women were perceived as being inferior to the European males . Many slaves could not understand how their masters could fight for their independence from England while concurrently believing it was wrong for their slaves to do the same. They didn‟t even view slaves as being human beings possessing the same inalienable rights as they did. This ignorant perception of
peoples from African decent, although having diminished a great deal in American society, still is being exhibited in the form of preconceived stereotypes of black people. The most extreme demonstration of black people being physically and mentally assaulted as a result of these stereotypes could be clearly seen during the 1955 Bus Boycott by Dr. Martin Luther King, when conflicts between civil rights workers and those that would fight to maintain the “white way of life” led to violence, and in some case murder. Between 1948 and 1965, over two hundred black homes and churches in the Deep South were the targets of bombings, the most explosive city being Birmingham, Alabama. Although racially motivated assaults happen with much less frequency and on a much smaller scale today, we must realize the lasting psychological scars these events have left on the black psyche that get passed on from generation to generation. From the moment that they are born black males are already have a burden placed on their shoulders by our society due to the history of their ancestors in this country that preceded them. However, because of this black males reject exclusion and marginalization. Genovese (1974) explains, that enslaved black Africans developed a culture of resistance to the institution of slavery and demonstrated their opposition through their language and communication patterns, their work rhythms, and their frequent running away from the burden of slavery (qtd. in Cuyjet by Kreisberg, 1992). The concept of an invisible and powerless culture most adequately describes the treatment of black males in public schools. For example, when inner-city black males are recognized, they are most often characterized as unlearned, uneducable, hostile, volatile, criminal, and physically and sexually aggressive (Hopkins). Many black males are required to enroll in public school and participate in a school system which views them as invisible, except in negative
terms. Black males are not oblivious to the pervasiveness of negative imaging and stereotyping placed on them by society at large and in turn in by the public schools. Also, they are aware of the minimal expectations placed on them by parents, teachers, and society as a whole (Hopkins). The vast majority of black males that are of one year in age are already at a physical disadvantage compared to white males of the same age because of poverty. There is much data to suggest that many black children raised in circumstances of economic poverty, are at a greater risk for later educational failure and/or under achievement (Hopkins, Hale-Benson). Furthermore, many studies suggest that the foundation for early learning and educational achievement are laid in the infant‟s first year of life. In other countries it has been recognized that educational failure is a part of the cycle of poverty. When the levels of malnutrition and infant illness are extreme, cognitive deficits first appear in children during infancy (Hopkins, Ford Foundation, 1983). The following statistics regarding health status in black children reflect the fact that such children are more likely to be living in poverty and are more likely to continue to suffer poorer health throughout the first years of life. In 1983, for example, almost one-half of black children were living in poverty and the median income of black families was less than six tenths that of white families (Hopkins, Children‟s Defense Fund, 1985). The rate of illness and infection in black children is also significantly higher than that in white children. Up to 18.8% of black children had active cases of tuberculosis in 1979 (Hopkins, Children‟s Defense Fund, 1985). There is also substantial evidence that lowincome black children are more likely to have elevated blood lead levels, infections and pneumonitis in the first two years of life (Hopkins, Adebonojo, 1973). In addition,
between one fifth and one third of black children have hemoglobin levels that fall below the white median hemoglobin level (Hopkins, Children‟s Defense Fund, 1985). After reading these facts it becomes painfully obvious that a large percentage of black children are already at a disadvantage by the ages of one and two. In addition to the emotional and physical disadvantages black males must face when first introduced to education, they also are faced with social disadvantages that hinder the learning process. Many black men are convinced that they are merely an “endangered species”, expected to drop out of school forbidden to apply to college, destined to be unemployed, and somehow to be excused for not accepting responsibility as men. (Hopkins 79). The acknowledgement and soon after the acceptance of this selfperception forced on black males by this country becomes evident as early as the fourth grade. “The “failure syndrome” by which as early as the fourth grade black males become aware that schools do not invest in their learning process. Many of these young men internalize these attitudes and develop an inferior perception of their own abilities and aspirations as compared to others.” (Cuyjet 8). When viewing the social aspect of the black male, we find that most have six things in common: 1) Children of single mothers. The teenage pregnancy rates are rising at an alarming rate, and for black youths, the percentages are greater than for other ethnic groups. The young mother usually withdraws from school after the birth of her baby and rarely returns after the birth of her baby and rarely returns to complete her education. Having little education herself, the teenage mother has few skills to assist her child with his schoolwork and does not serve as a positive role model to inspire him to complete his high school education. 2) Family experiences economic adversity. The teenage mother does not have the skills to
secure a minimum wage job, the family is reduced to living upon governmental assistance. Additionally, the teenage mother is living with her parents or parents who have other siblings which increases the economic burden. 3) Family lives in substandard housing. Many black male students live in substandard housing apartments or governmental authority projects. The neighborhood around these dwellings is not safe and is conducive to criminal activity, thus, the students are exposed to a negative societal atmosphere. 4) Child being reared by relative other than parent. Because of the plethora of teenage pregnancies, many black male students are under the supervision of some adult relative other than their mother. Many young mothers have abdicated their authority to the child‟s grandparents or another relative such as an aunt or older sibling. Often the relative is elderly and unable to control the child who is placed under his jurisdiction because the mother is unable to exercise control. Sometimes the elder parent receives the child when the mother is unable to provide care because she is incarcerated or is drug dependent. 5) Family has high mobility rate. Research has demonstrated that students who attended the same school for educational career have a higher probability of graduation. Statistics have shown that the children of one parent have a tendency to move more frequently than those of a two-parent household. Each move requires the student to begin the socialization process whose success or failure will influence intellectual accomplishment. 6) Negative or absent influential males. Because many of the black male students are born to teenage females who are not married and reside in the home of the maternal grandmother, there is a dearth of positive male role models. Often the males observed are unable to secure employment and resort to illegal means of obtaining money such as through the drug trade. This negative employment illustrates to
the impressionable male child a method of securing “easy money” with little education required while little thought is given to the consequences of such actions. It is not unique to observe elementary school-age males who are experienced drug dealers. (Harris & Duhon). The issue of loss is one usually associated with black males and it is extremely likely that these youth have witnessed a homicide in their own community or social circle and know black men who are incarcerated and do drugs (Cuyjet). The black men that do survive may, as mentioned earlier, still suffer from emotional scars from fighting institutional racism and watching their brothers fall victim to the system. The tendency for black males to become deeply embedded within their peer group has been noted by a number of writers. Such strong peer relations have been interpreted as a failure of parental authority, early dependency on siblings as caretakers, and normal expectations from adults in low income communities (Gordon, Jones, 1980). T o black males, peers are seen as sources of security, achievement, social status, values, and selfvalidation (Gordon, Taylor, 1989). Belongingness is seen as a basic and fundamental human need (Gordon, Maslow, 1954), thus for urban youth in particular, the peer group serves as a circle of social acceptance and support in a world where they feel isolated and pessimistic about the future and where positive adult role models are scarce. Unfortunately, peer groups can discourage academic achievement as well. Many academic problems surface due to black males‟ rejection of academic traits as being European or feminine. Some compensate for poor academic interest by hiding books, withholding the truth about good grades, becoming the class clown, or dealing drugs. Others find consolation by immersing themselves in interest outside of academics, for example, music, athletics, or entertainment (Polite & Davis). One of the aforementioned,
music, in particular hip-hop, is a widely excepted culture for many black males. Black males view hip-hop culture as being music, fashion, and freedom of expression; it is cultural collectiveness in a seemingly divided nation (Polite & Davis). More significantly it is something that young black males can identify with, belong to, create, and call their own. Hip-hop is a language, dress, attitude and overall lifestyle that should not be ignored. It is as much a part of the black experience, a place where frustration and anger can be voiced and received by sympathetic ears (Polite & Davis). The lack of father figures in the black community due to the dramatic increase in teenage pregnancy rate, as mentioned earlier, is a major contributing factor to the lack of educated black men. Research suggests that the absence of a strong paternal presence in the home is the catalyst behind the most disturbing problems that plague American society: crime and delinquency; premature sexuality and out of wedlock birth; poor educational achievement, addiction and alienation among adolescents; and poverty for women and children (Gordon, Popenoe, 1996). Although society may view black men as not being good fathers, this perception is just not true. Black men value their families just as much as others do. A black father is the epitome of resilience. He has paid an enormous price for survival in an environment that continually impedes his success. He engenders the birth of men who through sweat, blood, and tears fought or their rights as men in a racist society. Moreover, he is the strength, discipline, and foundation that enables the next generation to prosper. Though societal ills have sabotaged some of his efforts, the black father has demonstrated that he has the capacity to overcome adversity (Gordon).
Many black males have not had the opportunity to engage in activities that boost their self-esteem and self-worth. The vast majority of black males that actually do attend high school do not receive the same opportunities and course selections that the majority of white males receive because the finances to do so are not available to the schools they attend, yet each year more and more money is being pumped into the federal prison systems. Consequently, less and less black students are matriculating from high school and attending institutions of higher learning.
Section II: The Disparity Between Black Males and Higher Education By: Desireé Conrad
Although there are more black students now than ever attaining a high school diploma and pursuing a collegiate education, there is a simultaneously growing disparity between black females and black males at this level of achievement. Too few black males are making it to collegiate institutions and even worse, the retention rate for this group at such institutions is low amongst the few that do enroll. One of the main sources for this problem is that black males see themselves as ill-prepared for the challenges that colleges and universities may bring and as ultimately doomed for failure so they do not work towards a college education. This raises two questions—why do black males internalize this sentiment and where did black males acquire this learned train of thought? Throughout their experience in the education system, young black males are taught by educators and certain peers to believe that they are incompetent and this idea of failure is embedded in their heads as early as the fourth grade. This, in conjunction with teachers‟ approach in educating black males (teaching in a remedial manner due to stereotypes), social expectations of failure, and a lack of a positive support system (that incorporates parents, educators, and peers) exacerbates this problem. This is achieved by intimidating black males with the idea of entering into and succeeding at a college or university because they are encouraged to work towards lesser goals and taught that they are illprepared and incompetent. Therefore it is necessary to take actions such as implementing mentor programs, altering the education system along with its methods, and educating faculty, staff, and students about racial stereotypes. These interventions must occur in the elementary years of black males‟ education instead of at a collegiate level because the ultimate goal is to generate a larger, well-prepared enrollment pool, not retaining the few that are already enrolled.
Currently black females are outpacing black males in college matriculation, enrollment, and graduation. Statistics show that “[n]ationally, Black women in college out-numbered Black men in college 971,000 to 580,000 in 1997, which is a percentage split of 62.6 percent women and 37.4 percent men, according to the U.S. Department of Education. In 1984, 639,000 Black women attended college compared to 437,000 Black men, a 59.4 percent and 40.6 percent split” (Roach 18). Furthermore, statistics show that more black women complete high school and enroll into colleges or universities than black men, for “among[st] the 1,949,000 Black women from age 18 to 24 completing high school in 1997, 33 percent of them enrolled in college while only 25 percent of the 1,701,000 Black males from age 18 to 24 completing high school in 1997 entered college” (Roach 18). Finally, black women have a higher retention rate than that of their male counterparts; on a national scale “Black men had a full-time undergraduate degree completion rate of 34.4 percent compared to Black women at 43.5 percent, according to 1997 U.S. Department of Education data” (Roach 18). There are four major factors that negatively affect black males‟ psychology in the learning environment. They have significantly contributed to this education disparity that is plaguing the black community. These four factors are as follows: 1) The non-Black society, 2) Educators and their methods of educating the black male—educators treat black males as if they possess lower mental capacities than their peers, 3) “Failure syndrome” and other psychological syndromes that occur as black males internalize the low expectations of society and the education system, and 4) The lack of positive black male role models such as the lack of those in single parent households where the mother is raising a son. Other factors that also contribute to the black male education crisis are
high incarceration rates as well as the black male‟s self identification and their overall negative outlook towards their life in the future. The prevalent stereotypes about black men that non-black society holds has one of the most damaging effects on the mentality of black men. Since these four factors are interrelated, non-black society‟s perceptions of the black male are equivalent to knocking over the first domino in a row of dominos. It causes a chain reaction where one problem consistently leads to another until a state of crisis is reached; or in reference to the dominos, when the last one falls. As a result of the historic white population‟s attitude towards the black male, there has been a “broad acceptance and institutionalization of these negative perceptions of men as threatening, unfriendly, and less intelligent than any other distinguishable segment of the American population” (Cuyjet 8). Furthermore, such negative perceptions induce educators to use different and often remedial educational methods with black males because of stereotype that black males have behavioral problems and are intellectually inferior to their peers. Additionally black males acquire conditions such as “failure syndrome” once they realize “that schools do not invest in their learning process” (Cuyjet 8). This adds to the negative outlook that society and the education system has on the black male‟s future. The low expectations that society has of the black male has led to low self-esteem, the development of these conditions and more importantly, low standards—“if little is expected, little is given” (White 36) thus explaining the weak study habits and low performance levels. These factors eventually lead to the small presence of black male role models guiding younger males during a time of such a crisis when there are not enough males that have successfully defeated this chain reaction of problems themselves. This is the level at
which these prior problems lead to a crisis because there are not enough males that are defeating this faulty system to mentor the many others that are left behind. Additionally, the non-Black society is responsible for the spread of theories such as the endangered species theory. A theory that expresses extremity by stating that the black male population will eventually become extinct because by the time most black males reach the 18-25 years old age range, they are dead or behind bars. An increased rate of death amongst young black males results from violence, higher risks of cancers amongst the black male population, and a growing transmission rate of STDs. The other factor, high incarceration rates amongst black males, has eclipsed the progress made in improving black males‟ access to college (Cox 14). High incarceration rates amongst black males has resulted from “mandatory minimum sentencing, the need to fill the prisons built over the last two decades, and the continuing effectiveness of racism, many black men are ending up in jail. This is one factor that has led to there being more black men incarcerated today than enrolled in colleges and universities, as well as the declines of the share of total state and local government spending on higher education as spending on prisons has increased” (Nelson 1). According to the study Cellblocks or Classrooms “between 1985 and 2000, the increase in state spending on corrections was nearly doubled that of the increase to higher education ($20 billion versus $10.7 billion), and the total increase in spending on higher education by states was 24 percent, compared with 166 percent for corrections” (Cox 14). Further information that was published in this study was that state spending on corrections grew at 6 times the rate of state spending on higher education and that in the year 2000 there were estimated reports that more than a quarter of the states had more black males in jail than in college with statistic estimating
791,600 in prison and jail and 603,000 in higher education (Cox 14). This evidence reveals that there is decreased funding towards education which in turn leads to there being less funds to carryout measures such as educating school faculties, administrations, and staff on the effects of stereotypes and their falsehoods, that ultimately aid the education of black males. Moreover, as corrections assume a larger share of state spending, the burden of paying for college is shifted to the students. This poses an issue to the black males because it further discourages them from applying to colleges out of fear of not being able to foot the cost of colleges because they feel they are not smart enough to attain academic scholarships. As previously mentioned, the second major factor that contributes to the small presence of black males on college campuses is educators approach in educating the black male. Educators make a significant contribution to the academic development and achievement of black males because it is the classroom teacher who is the second most influential figure to the black male student, second only to his mother (Harris 23). Therefore educators nurture a feeling of ineptitude when their educational approach towards the black male is based off this mindset that black male students must be educated in a different manner because of their supposed behavioral issues and inability to grasp concepts at an on track pace. Furthermore, when educators are not cognizant of some of the common perceptions held by the black male student, they fail to design programs that combat and dispel these ideologies so that people see what they are prepared to see (Harris 13). In the end, this encourages black males to believe that “I do not control my own academic destiny, I do not feel acceptance, and I will be the victim of discrimination.” Usually when black male youth state or believe that “I do not control my
academic destiny,” “I do not feel acceptance,” or “I will be a victim of discrimination” he is expressing a pessimistic attitude that originates when the student supposes that failure is inevitable and no amount of effort on his part will result in the successful performance of the tasks required or the acceptance of his instructor, peers, or the community which he matriculates, and that ultimately discrimination will inhibit their progress (Harris 1415). Another sentiment that educators can bring about in black males when they consistently treat their black male students as if they possess a mentally incapability when compared to their peers is “stereotype threat”. Stereotype threat is a term developed by Claude Steele that describes a feeling felt by students in an academic setting heavily populated by peers and teachers who are likely to perceive individuals as representing a negative stereotype like intellectual inferiority that is associated with their race, culture or gender. This feeling builds up an anxiety in black male students from worrying whether or not their peers and especially educators, perceive it as true. The level of distress this anxiety causes is enough to lower performance even in the cases when the student is highly prepared (Cox (2000) 22). Stereotypes threat lays a foundation upon which the third factor—syndromes like “failure syndrome”—that also inhibits black males from being well-prepared for college. The third aforementioned factor that was contributes to the current education crisis with the black male in America is syndromes such as “failure syndrome” that result when these black males internalize the expectation of society and the education system. According to one study by Kunjufu, the early age of about nine, or at the fourth grade academic level, black males develop what is called “failure syndrome”—when black males become aware that schools do not invest in their learning process (Cuyjet 8).
Consequently from black males‟ awareness they are treated as though remedial in the classroom setting, they begin to act accordingly and stop putting forth the initiative in work. As a result of internalizing this attitude, young black males develop an inferior perception of their own abilities and aspirations as compared to others. The end result is black males are convinced “that they are merely an „endangered species,‟ expected to drop out of school, forbidden to apply to college, destined to be unemployed, and somehow to be excused for not accepting responsibility as men” (Hopkins 79). Moreover, Cuyjet quotes from Tyrone Taborn, who quotes from author Green and Wright, that “[f]rom inner-city school kids to the freshmen at Harvard University, an overwhelming percentage of black students do not believe that they are as smart as whites.” Thus Cuyjet proposes that colleges should create an environment where African American men encounter a positive perception of themselves and their culture. The last of the four preceding major factors is the lack of positive black male role models. Wilson argues that the distresses of low black male college population can be immediately alleviated if “[m]any educators consider the placement of formally assigned mentors on campus who are similar in race and gender” (Wilson 176). Wilson‟s states a preference of black male mentors, however, he also points out that there are not enough black male educators or role models available to fulfill this quota. Therefore he later goes on to admit that mentors of different races and genders would be just as effective. Furthermore, Wilson believes that by providing black men in higher level institution with mentors, that this will help counteract the challenges of black men transitioning to predominately white institutions and help black men find their “niche” in these environments. According to Wilson, providing mentors is the first and most valuable
step towards “reversing the trend of a questionable future for the Black male‟s persistence in higher education” (Wilson 176). Additionally, if this plan is successfully carried out he proposes that black males will be able to eliminate stereotypes, increase the number of college graduates and ensure a productive future for the black family and community. Yet Wilson ignores the deeper issue that lies beyond the need for mentors
at the collegiate level. There is a dire need for black male mentors and educators for young black boys. Black male educators and mentors would aid black boys in adapting to their educational and social environments as well as overcoming the undermining beliefs of society. An additional factor that aids in the low presence of black males on campus is the black male culture, itself, along with the sentiments that the black male encounters while trying to cope and identify himself in the American society. More so than any other group of students black males depend on their peers to provide social acceptance and support where they feel isolated and pessimistic. In order “[t]o compensate for these feelings of insecurity in an Eurocentric world African-American male youth redefine what it means to be a man in their world. For the most part this includes sexual promiscuity, machismo, risk taking, and aggressive social skills” (Polite 73). These sentiments are exhibited in the classroom in the form of the young black youth becoming the class clown, fighting, skipping class, “dissing”/“joining”(verbal insults). Even though some of these traits are found common amongst most boys of all races, misunderstandings about the black male culture and the source of these sentiments lead to these misbehaviors manifesting into stereotypes. “Although gender differences in behavioral regulation are indisputable, ethnic comparisons of male behavior do not yield
such clear cut results. Data from the Child Health Supplement to the National Health Interview Survey (1988) show that young Euro-American males are rated by parents as often mean and aggressive with the same frequency as African-American males. However African-American males are more often rated as disobedient at school because they do not follow rules and exhibit disruptive classroom behavior” (Gordon 5). This more than likely results from teachers not knowing how to deal with such behaviors and the background of black males. This leads to teachers to not using cognitive measures when educating black males and approaching them with a mindset based of stereotypes. Some may argue that the responsibility of the educating the black male falls solely upon the black community. For example, Shelby Steele argues in his essay Liberal Bias and the Zone of Decency that Black people are aresponsible—they are not responsible for the cause of their problems and if they were to take responsibility, it would not resolve their problems, so ultimately they are then perceived as inferior—and that society excuses them from certain responsibilities out of fear of being stigmatized as racists or culturally insensitive. However, all the factors mentioned above take a toll on the black male‟s self esteem and create further challenges in positive self-identification. Moreover, the American society and educators who also happen to not all belong to the black race are incorporated into these factors. Therefore the “[h]ealthy identity development, while an individual struggle, is the collective responsibility of teens, parents, and educators” (Polite 77) for as long as non-black individuals participate in the education of or influence black males the black community cannot be blamed nor held solely responsible for this present educational crisis. What is critically important to this struggle is the need for black males to receive continuous reinforcement for academic
progress and success. Parents, role models, peers, and educators must transmit the belief that these teens can succeed, and then insure that it happens (Polite 77). Arguments similar to those of Shelby Steele‟s that promote individual rights and responsibility ignore the effects of outside parties effect on the black community and become ineffective justifications that retard incentives to rectify this crisis with black males. Furthermore, these arguments increase the division between social groups, decreases the government‟s willingness to provide funding to schools for the education of black males, and masks faults in the education system such as its cultural insensitivity by providing inadequate justification that dumps responsibility on the black community and encourages other ethnic groups to not to get involved in an affair that they have influence in and affect them as citizens of this country as well. If these major factors continue to thrive without the threat of elimination created by changes that improve the education of the black male, long term effects will begin to settle. Marvin Wilson, the author of the journal article LAST WORD: Reversing the Plight of African American Male College Students, emphasizes that there will be long term economic, social, and political problems in society. Thus the ensuing information can be implied. From an economic standpoint, in today‟s society, it is becoming increasingly imperative that one has an education that surpasses the secondary level. However, if black males are barely achieving a secondary education, they do not fulfill prerequisites for jobs that sustain a lifestyle above the poverty level; so “[i]f the nonBlack community makes it hard for Black men to enter certain occupations [by continuing to deny aid towards this education crisis with black men], it can expect to pay for this choice in the cost of welfare, homelessness, private police, gated communities,
burglar alarms and prisons” (Stein 26). Socially, as a result of this crisis, predominately white institutions lack cultural diversity and the lessons it teaches, also the black community does not completely integrate into society because its community has a weak institution of manhood (positive male figures that are exceptions to stereotypes like “endangered species”). Finally, the black community will be a limited participant in the political atmosphere due to the fact that a majority of the males are educationally incompetent to run for office. Voting in this particular community is disproportionate, and although a majority of the women are educated, politics is male-dominated field. As mentioned in the beginning, earlier administration of programs that improve black males‟ perception and participation in education should be taken to generate a larger application pool for post secondary institutions. A particular program that should be implemented as early as kindergarten, when black males enter the education system is education of teachers, faculty and staff of the black male culture in addition to making alterations to educational methods and the overall education system. In order to provide immediate response that will close the achievement gap that exists between black males and their peers, these programs should be in place and ready to respond to problems that come about when the male enters the education system at the kindergarten level. The earliest detection of an achievement gap between black and white children is found during years of pre-schooling when children range from three to four years of age. Although children of both races are able to recognize test and count to twenty on test given by NHES (National Household Education Survey), black children are less able to identify primary colors, read or write their name according to NCES (National Center for Education Statistics) statistics (Gordon 2-3). Therefore when African American children
enter the education system at the kindergarten level they already lag behind in reading and mathematical skills. This gap that is never closed during the years of elementary education and even moreover, it generates half of the larger achievement gaps found between these races in middle and high school (Gordon 2-3). If there are achievement gaps and cultural differences as early as kindergarten, then there is a need for teachers to be made aware of these differences so that they can formulate education programs that accommodate all students and address problems such as these, right when they start. Additionally, improvements to programs such as education of teachers, faculty and staff of the black male culture and making alterations to educational methods and the overall education system should do something. Furthermore, by learning more about the black male culture and being aware of the effects of non-cognitive approaches in educating black males, programs in mentorship can be created. Mentoring is a crucial program because it is the mentor that facilitates intellectual/emotional growth and development in black males through exposure to social, occupational, and educational opportunities (Polite 79). However, an obstacle that challenges mentoring or counseling is that “[b]ecause counseling has frequently been equated with mental or emotional illnesses, the Black community has long believed that it was free from this need, and the mere suggestion of it [is] offensive (White 36). In order for a successful mentoring program to be carried out the following must take place: mentor should be selected from the community or school and should be black if at all possible; however, if not the mentor should be well-trained so that they can effectively guide the youth‟s development into young adulthood; and most importantly mentors should be established in the community, model appropriate social behaviors and be reliable and accessible to the mentee (Polite
79). Mentorship is more effective when carried out during the mentee‟s childhood before time is allotted for the negative attitudes and responses to their environment become habitual. So mentorship, should be instituted before one reaches a collegiate level of education. Referring back to the dominos analogy, it is not too late to remedy this problem because like dominos, the issues are just leaning on top of each other but none are completely knocked down all are capable of being restacked in a more stable position. This means that it is possible to reestablish a firm foundation for the education of black males if each of these factors are addressed head on and the correct actions are taken to diminish or eliminate their harsh effects on the education of the black male population. There have been different proposed methods on how to go about fixing a diminishing rate in the enrollment and retention of males into colleges and universities. These methods include but are not limited to mentor programs at colleges and universities, alteration of the education methods of professors at colleges and universities—implementing more cognitive methods and approaches, and the educating of students, faculty and staff at colleges and universities on the black male culture and stereotypes. Cuyjet proposes that a way to increase black male college enrollment rate is for colleges and universities to provide a nurturing environment. In order to achieve this nurturing environment, colleges must realize and rectify two things. First faculty, staff, and students at colleges and universities must understand that social science literature negatively portrays black men and that this “is a gross injustice to the majority of the African-American men depicted by these images” (Cuyjet 7). He suggests that the way
faculty and staff should go about fixing this is “to develop an understanding of African American men‟s culture and then develop effective interventions based on the new understanding” (Cuyjet 7). Secondly, he states that college and university environments should nurture and reinforce higher expectations of success amongst African American men. Due to the fact that African American men have, over time, developed undermining attitudes towards their own merits and abilities, this second part of his proposal proves extremely necessary. In addition to his two step plan, Cuyjet encourages colleges and universities to review results from the College Student Experiences Questionnaire to access the needs of African American men. Cuyjet incorporates two of the three of the proposed programs into his plan which is better than only one of the programs being instituted, yet there are still weaknesses that lie within his plan. First of all, he is arguing that faculty and staff must learn more about the black male which could be difficult given that faculty and staff is extremely large and is composed of adults who have developed these ideas about black males, their culture and their interactions with them all of their life into adulthood. Secondly, colleges and universities cannot immediately create environments that nurture and reinforce high expectations for black men because they must first take measures such as teaching black males that counseling/mentoring does not make one intellectual inferior and teaching black males that they are not defined by society and should not act accordingly. The third plan, which has been previously discussed, is the institution of role models and mentors at the collegiate level to help black males find their “niche.” This plan is said by Wilson to give an immediate response to the problem; however, one thing is not taken into account. As mentioned before, the fact that “[b]ecause counseling has
frequently been equated with mental or emotional illnesses, the Black community has long believed that it was free from this need, and the mere suggestion of it [is] offensive” (White 36). A further weakness with just instituting the program of mentoring is that there are not enough black mentors at the college level. Moreover, it has been said that college faculty, staff, and students need to be educated on the black male culture and effect ways of interacting with the black male; so incorporating non-Black role models or mentors into the program may not prove as useful if these advisors are not well-educated in these areas. A final weakness in using this program alone is that if mentors are encouraging black males to believe that there is an intellectually equivalence between them, and their peers but professors are not treating them as if they are this in the classroom setting, then the mentoring proves to be ineffective. None of the preceding plans by themselves have been successfully carried out— there still remains a low percentage of black males that are making it to the collegiate level and through its completion. These plans have been unsuccessful mainly because they fail on two occasions. The first is that these programs will not work alone because they fail to address all four interrelated factors—1)Society, 2)Educators and their methods of educating the black male, 3) “Failure syndrome” and other mental syndromes that occur as black males internalizing the expectations of society and the education system, and 4) The lack of positive black male role models such as the lack of those in single parent households where the mother is raising a son—that contribute to this education disparity that is plaguing the black community by negatively altering the mentality of black males. For instance, a mentor program omits the need for educators, faculty, and staff to learn the importance of a cognitive approach when educating black
males, the importance of cognitive teaching methods omits the need to educate peers and society on stereotypes of the black male and their negative effects and so on. The second occasion that individual plans fail is that these plans take place so late in the black males‟ education experience. At the collegiate level, in addition to many adults being set in their ways of carrying themselves, the environment tends to be a lot larger than grade school settings and it becomes harder to undo the emotional and mental damage that has festered in black males throughout their childhood. Therefore it is necessary to take actions such as mentor programs, alteration of the education system and methods, and education of faculty, staff, and students on racial stereotypes in the elementary years of black males‟ education instead of at a collegiate level because the ultimate goal is to generate a larger, well-prepared enrollment pool, not retaining the few that are already enrolled. Through success at a case study at Evanston Township High School, this plan has been proven effective. Although the case study was conducted at the high school level and not the elementary level it proved to be more effective than at the collegiate level. Which further supporting the idea that the earlier this plan is implemented the better it is for the students involved. Better results are expected at the junior high and elementary level. The case study is discussed in further detail in the proceeding section, Section III, of this research.
Section III: The Case Study: Success Mirrored By Implemented Methods By: Erica Douglas
After researching the many media generated stereotypes that have developed pertaining to different racial groups, particularly black males, and their effects on the educational system in America, it only seemed necessary to explore the reality of these stereotypes within the context of their natural environments. Therefore, in order to gain a better understanding of how these stereotypes directly affect youth and education, we took our research out of the books and conducted our own case study. After looking into a variety of educational atmospheres, we concluded that the best type of environment to conduct our research would be in a diverse, high school with an abundance of resources and opportunity. The school had to be diverse, mainly a mixture of African-Americans and white students, because our research focused on black males. However, we want to evaluate the opinions of the students of other backgrounds who must interact with the black males. High school is a time in a student‟s life when he/she has developed a better sense of him/her personally and has started making pretty major life decisions that affect him/her personal and academic life. Finally, we wanted a school that has a wide range of resources available to its students and has a good reputation of academic standing. We found a school in the north suburbs of Chicago, Illinois called Evanston Township High School in the city of Evanston. Evanston not only met all of our prerequisites, but it also offered more. The community of Evanston is the most diverse suburb in the Chicago area, not only racially, but economically and socially. There is one high school in the city of about 170,000 inhabitants, and the vast majority of all of the children of Evanston eventually feed into Evanston Township. The only other option parents have to educate their children outside of Evanston Township is either private or home schooling-both of which are very expensive alternatives. Evanston is a unique
community because its population, especially its youth, is very racially diverse. The overall population is roughly 23% black, while the student body is roughly 46% black (Chicago Tribune Online). In many ways Evanston presents itself as a microcosm of urban America due to the fact that its population is so diverse, yet its neighborhoods remain segregated. Although the youth of Evanston attend the same schools and play on the same community teams, surprisingly, the youth of Evanston still remain as segregated as the neighborhoods they come from. Three of the four cafeterias of Evanston Township could be color-coded as black, white, and other based on the race of people who accumulate in each one. The only reason the fourth cafeteria is racially diverse is because it is the only designated cafeteria that freshmen students can eat in, and even within this cafeteria, the tables are segregated. What part do the media play in all of this? It is our theory that the youth of Evanston separate themselves along the lines of established media stereotypes which reflects in their performance in the classroom. Evanston Township offers a wide variety of classes in all different areas of study. From video production to a botany class, students have the option of exploring all kinds of subject matters. Also, Evanston has one of the most sophisticated advanced placement and honors curriculums in the state of Illinois. We visited a mix of the classes Evanston offers and this is what we found: Out of the five advanced placement classes, all of which had 18 or more students, we saw a total of 6 black students, one of which was male. One class didn‟t have any students of color, one had three black females, and the other three classes each had one black male or female. When we looked at some of the honors classes, we began to see more African-American students; however, the racial population
in the honors classes still did not reflect that of the entire population of the school. White students still dominated the classroom by 60% or more. The regular level classes seemed to be where all of the African-American students existed. Those classes often had more black students than white, but for the most part, the population in the regular classes tended to reflect the school‟s racial background more accurately. We asked one of the teachers at Evanston why he believed that there were such obvious color lines within the classrooms? He responded, “I believe that the problem starts with tracking and then other factors such as stereotypes, family involvement, and social background don‟t help the initial problem in most cases.” Although Evanston Township does not directly use tracking methods within its curriculum, the feeder elementary and middle schools that send their students to E.T.H.S. do use a tracking system, often starting in kindergarten. Therefore, the students at Evanston have been tracked for the majority of their lives. When they arrive at Evanston High School, they have stayed on their various, predetermined tracks for the most part, and those tracks usually decide what level classes they will be recommended to be placed in. The tracking system is believed to hurt students who are labeled as “slow” because there are other students who perform at a faster pace. Opponents of tracking have presented studies which show that the labels these students are given at the early stages of their schooling tend to stay with them throughout their educational careers. During the elementary stages, these labels sound innocent and harmless, such as Bluebirds and Redbirds.1 As each of these students graduate from each grade, most never
1
“Tracking,” Education Week, 6 December 2001, edition, 66, online, Internet at
graduate from the label. “For those on the lower tracks, a steady diet of lower expectations leads to a steadily low level of motivation toward school. In high school, the groups formerly known as the Bluebirds and the Redbirds have evolved into new tracks: College Preparatory and Vocational.”2 protest of the tracking system. According to the same teacher, and other staff at Evanston whom we talked to, agreed that the African-American students are predominately placed on the “slower” tracks at a very young age. They believe that it is because many of the white students enter into the kindergarten at a higher advantage because many white/affluent parents expose their children to the educational materials of kindergarten and higher before their children ever step foot into the schools. We grew curious to how many of the students actually related to this theory. By conducting a survey of one question to 10 black males and 10 white males. The results were that 8 out of 10 white males recall their parents teaching them some of the basic educational fundamentals, such as the ABCs and numbers, before they entered school as opposed to only 4 out of 10 black males. Therefore, the theory that more black students may be behind when they enter kindergarten is possibly true in the Evanston community. Next, we decided to look into the existence of stereotyping. We talked with random students of various age groups and racial backgrounds about their experiences with diversity in the classroom. Although all of our interviews are not included in this write up of our findings, the selected interviews that follow are a good representation of the responses we received from the entire group. http://www.edweek.org/context/topics/issuespage.cfm?id=26 through AOL Search.
2
It is this fact that causes such an extreme
Ibid.
Annelise is a junior at ETHS. She is white and comes from a very affluent background. She is taking a two advanced placement classes, and three honors. How many of your close friends are of a minority background? None of my close friends are. I‟m rarely ever forced to interact with people of a different background. The people who I kick it with are all the same as me. No one in my group is out of place; we‟re all white girls from the same background. How many of your close friends are in your classes, or take the same level classes as you? Most of my close friends are in all of my classes. They may not be in the same class that I‟m in, but they‟re probably in a different period. How often do you interact with the people in your classes socially outside of class? All the time. Most of the people in my classes are people who I‟ve grown up with in my neighborhood or hang out with or our parents know each other or something. Do your friends ever encourage you to take the classes you do and/or do they encourage you to do well in school? Yeah. We study together and stuff. I sometimes tell my friends to take a class so we can be together. It‟s not as boring when your friends are with you and we‟ll help each other out. When you are in a class, are you ever afraid that the teacher or students may think you’re dumb/not capable of the work? No. And if I am struggling, I‟m not afraid to go ask for help. That‟s what the teacher is there for. Do you think it is socially acceptable among your friends to be smart? Oh yeah, I wish I were as smart as some of my friends. Do you plan on attending college? Yes. What media stereotype do you think most people associate you with? Prep.
Jami, a black lower-middle class junior at E.T.H.S. is taking 2 honors classes and 4 regular level classes. How many of your close friends are of a minority background? All of them are black. How many of your close friends are in your classes, or take the same level classes as you? One of my closest friends is in one of my honors classes, but that‟s it. All of my close friends are in my regular level classes. How often do you interact with the people in your classes socially outside of class? Never, unless we run into each other somewhere. We would say hi and stuff, but that‟s about it. Do your friends ever encourage you to take the classes you do and/or do they encourage you to do well in school? We don‟t really talk about school that much. Sometimes they say stuff like, “You know you‟re going to have to do extra work in that class,” when I tell them I might take a honors class. When you are in a class, are you ever afraid that the teacher or students may think you’re dumb/not capable of the work? Sometimes I feel like in my honors classes that I slow the teacher down, so I don‟t always raise my hand when I have questions because nobody else does. Do you think it is socially acceptable among your friends to be smart? To an extent. It‟s not something you really want to talk about all the time. Do you plan on attending college? Yes. What media stereotype do you think most people associate you with? Ghetto fabulous/ “angry black woman.”
Roger is a white male and he was raised in the upper-middle class society. He takes all honors classes, and one regular level class. How many of your close friends are of a minority background? A lot. I probably have more close black friends than white. How many of your close friends are in your classes, or take the same level classes as you? Not many of them. How often do you interact with the people in your classes socially outside of class? Never. Do your friends ever encourage you to take the classes you do and/or do they encourage you to do well in school? I think my friends expect me to do well in my classes. They act surprised when I don‟t know stuff or get bad grades. When you are in a class, are you ever afraid that the teacher or students may think you’re dumb/not capable of the work? Sometimes I think teachers may relate how they believe I will perform academically to the way I dress and my friends. Because I tend to wear clothes that represent black culture mostly and some of my friends do not do that well in school . Do you think it is socially acceptable among your friends to be smart? I wouldn‟t say they look down on it, but we don‟t praise each other for it either. Do you plan on going to college? Yes. What media stereotype do you think most people associate you with? Probably the “Eminem wanna-be.”
Emmanuel is a black male in the 10th grade who attends Evanston High School. He is the first generation in his family to grow up the United States. He considers himself lower to lower-middle class. His class schedule is all regular level classes and one honors.. How many of your close friends are of a minority background? All of them except one. He‟s white and he‟s Jewish. We do our music thing together. How many of your close friends are in your classes, or take the same level classes as you? All of them. How often do you interact with the people in your classes socially outside of class? Always. Do your friends ever encourage you to take the classes you do and/or do they encourage you to do well in school? I mean, we try to take the same classes so we can chill together. One of my teachers encouraged me to take the honors class that I‟m taking cause she said I did well in her class. When you are in a class, are you ever afraid that the teacher or students may think you’re dumb/not capable of the work? No, not really. I hate asking for help sometimes though. I guess I don‟t want to look stupid. Do you think it is socially acceptable among your friends to be smart? Sort of. But if my friends saw me studying all the time, they might call me a nerd or something. Do you plan on going to college? Hopefully. What media stereotype do you think most people associate you with? A Thug.
Shanti, an upper class black senior, is taking a three advanced placement classes and two honors. How many of your close friends are of a minority background? Most of them. But I have a lot of close friends who I grew up with who were not minorities. How many of your close friends are in your classes, or take the same level classes as you? Some of them. How often do you interact with the people in your classes socially outside of class? From time to time. Do your friends ever encourage you to take the classes you do and/or do they encourage you to do well in school? Yes. Although they‟re not always in my classes, they support me. When you are in a class, are you ever afraid that the teacher or students may think you’re dumb/not capable of the work? No, but sometimes I feel like I‟m representing the entire black race, and so I don‟t want to do anything that would reflect upon black people badly. Do you think it is socially acceptable among your friends to be smart? Not really, but they accept me for being the “smart black kid,” which is ok with me. Do you plan on going to college? Yes. What media stereotype do you think most people associate you with? Even though I don‟t agree with this at all, I know I would be considered a Prep.
After our talking with some of the students of Evanston Township High School, we were able to come to a few conclusions about the lack of black students on the advanced and honors track: 1) Many students tend to want to take classes with their friends, and because there aren‟t many black people in the higher level classes, there isn‟t much desire for other black students to take those classes. 2) The amount of parental involvement before a child starts school has a very big possibility of affecting the initial track they are placed on. 3) Stereotypes of race from people of not only the opposite race, but also people of the same race may limit or encourage a student‟s academic success. At a high school of Evanston‟s caliber, there is a plethora of opportunities for each student. It is unfortunate that many of the African-American students, especially black males, do not take advantage of these opportunities. However, the labels that follow them repeatedly remind them that society does not expect them to perform well. Even when the doors to success are sitting there, with the keys in hand, black students see the white students going through the door and question whether they should follow or stay separated, just like in the cafeterias, their social groups, and their communities. One thing that makes Evanston extremely different than other schools is that the administration, faculty, and students have take notice to these devastating trends. The problem is widely recognized at this school and it is openly discussed rather than being swept under the rug. The school has sponsored forums, classes, and propaganda dedicated toward the issue. Also, they are attempting to break media stereotypes of minority youth by publicizing more of their accomplishments at Evanston rather than focusing on the negatives. Over the past five years, Evanston has played a very active
role in the war against what is nationally known as the Achievement Gap, and has been at the forefront of this crusade in the Chicago area and the nation. The people of Evanston could have sat around and let the problem fester, but instead, they took it upon themselves to find solutions. In 1999, two girls of the Class of 2000, Maya Evans and Shanti Hubbard, found the QUEST program at Evanston Township. QUEST, which stands for Questioning Understanding and Educating Students Together, decided that they were tired of being the only minorities in their higher level classes, so they put together a group of high and middle achieving AfricanAmerican students and asked them to mentor the African-American eighth graders from the feeder middle schools in the Evanston community. This group of students successful gathered a group of 30 - 50 eighth graders who come to the high school two Saturdays every month for an hour and a half for group mentoring. Here, the high school mentors perform workshops for the eighth graders on how to prepare for and succeed in high school. Topics include course selection, study skills, time management, social and peer pressure, etc. They also said that they wanted to show the younger generations of African-Americans that being success is cool, and that they have the support of other successful black students who have come before them. This program has become a success story in the Evanston community and has gained national attention. Since QUEST has started, the school has seen an increase of black students in on the higher tracks. From Maya and Shanti‟s idea of QUEST , the Superintendent of Evanston Township decided to approach the problem on a bigger level. With the help of some of his faculty and staff, he founded the MSAN (Minority Student Achievement Network).
This network of high schools across the nation are dedicated to closing the Achievement Gap have come together to work together and find solutions. Every year, there are two national conferences, one for teachers and one for students, to come together and discuss new issues and ideas. Also, professionals in the field and other successful minority role models attend the conference and work with the teachers and students. These are just two of the many programs that have started at Evanston Township geared towards the improvement of minorities in academics and they are seeing results slowly, but surely. A majority of the graduates from Evanston Township go on to pursue some sort of college education. Although a very high number of black males compared to other public schools attend college after graduation, black males still have a lot of room for improvement. Black males at Evanston seem to settle for the fact that they have a high chance of going to college because they attend Evanston Township rather than striving to do better at Evanston so they can attend even better colleges. Their habit to settle ends up keeping the gap as wide as it already is. But by instituting programs such as mentoring programs, alteration of the education system and methods, and education of faculty, staff, and students on racial stereotypes, like Evanston has, change can occur. Evanston gives hope to the rest of America that someday the Achievement Gap will decrease steadily until possibly closing completely.
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