poetic elements

1 FUNDAMENTAL POETIC ELEMENTS 1. Poetry Poetry is a patterned from of verbal or written expression of ideas in concentrated, imaginative and rhythmical terms. Poetry usually contains rhyme and a specific meter, but not necessarily. 2. Meter Meter is the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables established in a line of poetry. The stressed ( \ ) syllable is also called the accented or long syllable. The unstressed ( ∪ ) syllable is also called the unaccented or short syllable. In determining the meter, the importance of the word, the position in the metrical pattern, and other linguistic factors should be considered. In identifying the meter of a line of verse, the type and the number of the feet are considered. Confused yet? Just wait, it will get worse! 3. Foot A foot is a unit of meter. A metrical foot can have two or three syllables. A foot consists generally of one stressed and one or more unstressed syllables. A line may have on foot, two feet, etc. Poetic lines are classified according to the number of feet in a line. 4. Types of Metrical Feet The basic types of metrical feet determined by the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables are: a) Iambic foot b) Trochaic foot c) Anapestic foot d) Dactylic foot e) Spondaic foot f) Pyrrhic foot Mr. Weisberg Creative Writing and Poetry Don’t give up; examples are coming; it will become crystal clear! EXAMPLES: 5. Iamb The iambic foot is a two-syllable foot with the stress on the second syllable. The iambic foot is the most common foot in English. ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ Examples of words that are in them Iambic feet are: ( be low, de light, a muse) ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ A book ⏐ of ver ses un ⏐ der neath ⏐ the bough, ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ A jug ⏐ of wine, ⏐ a loaf ⏐ of bread ⏐ and thou. 2 6. Trochee The trochiac foot consists of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable. \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ (ne ver, ga ther, hap py) \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ Dou ble, ⏐ dou ble, ⏐ toil and ⏐ trou ble, \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ Fi re ⏐ burn and ⏐ caul dron ⏐ bub ble. 7. Anapest The anapestic foot consists of three syllables with the stress on the last syllable. ∪ ∪ \ ∪ ∪ \ ∪ ∪ \ (cav a lier, Loch in var, in ter twine) ∪ ∪ \ ∪ ∪ \ ∪ ∪ \ ∪ ∪ \ With the sheep ⏐ in the fold ⏐ and the cows ⏐ in their stalls. 8. Dactyl The dactylic foot contains three syllables with the stress on the first syllable. \ ∪ ∪ \ ∪ ∪ \ ∪ ∪ (hap pi ness, mer ri ly, mur mur ing) \ ∪ ∪ \ ∪ ∪ \ ∪ ∪ \ ∪ ∪ Love a gain, ⏐ song a gain, ⏐ nest a gain, ⏐ young a gain. 9. Spondee The spondaic foot consists of two stressed syllables. Compound words are examples of spondes; \ \ \ \ \ spondees are used for variation. \ (heartbreak, childhood, football) 10. Pyrrhic The pyrrhic foot consists of two unstressed syllables. This type of foot is rare and is found interspersed with other feet. 11. Kinds of Metrical Lines The basic kinds of metrical lines are: a) monometer – one foot line b) dimeter − two foot line c) trimeter – three foot line d) tetrameter – four foot line e) pentameter – five foot line f) hexameter − six foot line g) heptameter – seven foot line h) octometer − eight foot line 3 12. Monometer ∪ \ Following is an example of iambic monometer from a poem by Robert Herrick. Upon His Departure ∪ \ Thus I Pass by And die: As one, Unknown, And gone: I’m made A shade, 13. Dimeter ∪ \ And lain I’th’ grave: There have My cave. Where tell I dwell Farewell. \ ∪⏐ \ ∪ Below is an example of a poem in trochiac dimeter by Richard Armour Money \ ∪⏐ \ ∪ Workers earn it, Spendthrifts burn it, Bankers lend it, Women spend it, Forgers fake it, Taxes take it, Dying leave it, \ ⏐∪ \ ∪ Heirs receive it, Thrifty save it, Misers crave it, Robbers seize it, Rich increase it, Gamblers lose it, I could use it. 14. Trimeter . ∪ \ ⏐ ∪ \⏐ ∪ \⏐ Following is an example of iambic trimeter from a poem by Robert Bridges. The Idle Life I Lead .∪ \∪ \ ∪\ The idle life I lead Is like a pleasant sleep, Wherein I rest and heed The dreams that by me sweep. And still of all my dreams In turn so swiftly pass, Each in its fancy seems A nobler than the last. And every eve I say, Noting my step in bliss, That I have known no day In all my life like this. 4 15. Tetrameter ∪ \ ⏐ ∪ \⏐ ∪ \⏐ ∪ \ Below is an example of iambic tetrameter by Henry Leigh. from Not Quite Fair ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ The hills, the meadow, and the lakes, Enchant not for their own sweet sakes: They cannot know, they cannot care To know that they are not so fair. 16. Pentameter Some quotations from Alexander Pope illustrate iambic pentameter quite well. ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ To err ⏐ is hu ⏐ man, to ⏐ for give ⏐ di vine. True wit is Nature to advantage dress’d, What oft was thought, but ne’er so well expressed. The bookful of blockhead, ignorantly read, With loads of learned lumber in his head. 17. Hexameter A line of six iambic feet (iambic hexameter) is sometimes called an alexandrine. The ninth line of a Spenserian stanza is iambic hexameter and is referred to as an alexandrine. ∪ \ ⏐ ∪ \⏐ ∪ \⏐ ∪ \⏐ ∪ \⏐ ∪ \ from The Eve of St. Agnes ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ To think ⏐ how they ⏐ may ache ⏐ in i ⏐ cy hoods ⏐ and mails. from Fifine at the Fair If hunger, proverbs say, allures the wolf from wood, Much more the bird must dare a dash at something good. 18. Heptameter The iambic heptameter example is from a poem by Ernest Thayer. ∪ \ ⏐ ∪\⏐ ∪ \⏐ ∪ \⏐ ∪ \⏐ ∪\⏐ ∪ \⏐ ∪ \ from Casey at the Bat It looked extremely rocky for the Mudville nine that day, The score stood four to six with but an inning left to play; 5 19. Octameter Below is an example from a poem by Edgar Allen Poe to illustrate trochaic octameter. \∪⏐ \∪⏐\ ∪⏐\ ∪ ⏐ \∪ ⏐\ ∪ ⏐\ ∪ ⏐ \∪ from The Raven \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ \ ∪ Once u ⏐ pon a ⏐ midnight ⏐ dreary, ⏐ while I ⏐ pondered, ⏐ weak and ⏐ weary, VERSE FORMS 20. Verse Forms The kinds of verse forms based on meter and rhyme are: a) rhymed verse b) blank verse c) free verse 21. Rhymed Verse Rhymed verse consists of verse with end rhyme and usually with a regular meter. Horses The head the list Of bad to bet on, But I insist They’re worse to get on. Richard Armour 22. Blank Verse Blank verse consists of lines of iambic pentameter without end rhyme. From Julius Caesar Cowards die many times before their deaths; The valiant never taste of death but once. Of all the wonders that I have yet heard, It seems to me most strange that men should fear; Seeing that death, a necessary end, Will come when it will come. Shakespeare 6 23. Free Verse Free verse consists of lines that do not have a regular meter and do not contain rhyme. Splinter The voice of the last cricket Across the first frost Is one kind of good-by. It is so thin a splinter of singing. Carl Sandburg DEVICES OF SOUND 24. Rhyme Rhyme (also spelled “rime”) is the similarity or likeness of sound existing between two words, A true rhyme should consist of identical sounding syllables that are stressed and the letters preceding the vowel sounds should be different. Thus fun and run are true or perfect rhymes because the vowel sounds are identical preceded by different consonants. 25. Position of Rhyme Rhyme may be end rhyme or internal rhyme. 26. End Rhyme End rhyme consists of the similarity occurring at the end of two or more lines of verse. I Wish I wish that my room had a floor; a I don’t so much care for a door, a But this walking around b Without touching the ground b Is getting to be quite a bore! a Gelett Burgess 27. Internal Rhyme Internal rhyme consists of the similarity occurring between two or more words in the same line of verse. from The Raven Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore – While I nodded nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door – “’Tis some visitor,” I muttered, “Tapping at my chamber door – Only this and nothing more.” Poe 7 27. Internal Rhyme (continued) from Jesse James It was on a Wednesday night, the moon was shining bright They robbed the Glendale train, And the people they did say, for many miles away, ‘Twas the outlaws Frank and Jesse James. Jess had a wife, to mourn all her life, Te children they are brave. ‘Twas a dirty little coward shot Mister Howard; And laid Jesse James in his grave. Anonymous •Howard was the name Jesse was using• 28. Kinds of Rhyme The kinds of rhyme based on the number of syllables presenting a similarity of sound are: a) masculine rhyme b) feminine or double rhyme c) triple rhyme 29. Masculine Rhyme Masculine rhyme occurs when one syllable of a word rhymes with another word. (bend and send, bright and light) Taps Fading light a a Dims the sight, b And the stars gem the sky, Gleaming bright, a b From afar drawing nigh, Falls the night. a Joseph Esenwein 30. Feminine or Double Rhyme Feminine rhyme occurs when the last two syllables of a word rhyme with another word. (lawful and awful, lighting and fighting, rattling and battling) How Are You Don’t tell your friends about your indigestion: “How are you!” is a greeting, not a question. Arthur Guiterman 8 31. Triple Rhyme Triple rhyme occurs when the last three syllables of a word or line rhyme. (victorious and glorious, ascendency and descendency, quivering and shivering, battering and shattering) The Hippopotamus I shoot the hippopotamus With bullets made of platinum Because if I use leaden ones His hide is sure to flatten ‘em. Hillaire Belloc 32. Rhyme Scheme Rhyme scheme is the pattern or sequence in which the rhyme occurs. The first sound is represented or designated as a, the second sound is designated as b, and so on. When the first sound is repeated, it is designated as a also. Some Little Bug In these days of indigestion It is often times a question As to what to eat and what to leave alone, For each microbe and bacillus Has a different way to kill us, And in time they always claim us for their own There are germs of every kind In any food that you can find In the market or upon the bill of fare. Drinking water’s just as risky As the so-called deadly whiskey, And it’s so often a mistake to breathe the air. Roy Atwell Pippa’s Song The year’s at the spring And day’s at the morn; Morning’s at seven; The hillside’s dew-pearled; The lark’s on the wing, The snail’s on the thorn God’s in his heaven All’s right with the world! Browning a b c d a b c d a a b c c b d d e f f e 9 33. Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of the initial letter or sound in two or more words in a line of verse. How much dew could a dewdrop drop if a dewdrop did drop dew? from My Madeline My Madeline! My Madeline! Mark my melodious midnight moans; Much may my melting music mean, My modulated monotones. Walter Parks from A Tutor A tutor who tooted the flute Tried to teach two young tooter’s to toot; Said the two to the tutor, “Is it harder to toot, or To tutor two tooters to toot! Carolyn Wells from Pied Beauty Glory be to God for dappling things – For skies of couple-color as a branded cow; For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout and swim; Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches’ wings; Landscape plotted and pierced-fold, fallow, and plough; And all trades, their gear and tackle and trim. Hopkins 34. Onomatopoeia (on o mat o pe’ a) Onomatopoeia is the use of a word to represent or imitate natural sounds. (buzz, crunch, tinkle, gurgle, sizzle, hiss) from The Coming of Arthur Clang battleaxe, and clash brand! Let the king reign. Tennyson from The Princess The moan of the doves in immemorial elms, And murmuring of innumerable bees. Tennyson 10 from The Bells Hear the sledges with the bells, Silver bells! What a world a merriment their melody foretells! How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, In the icy air of night! Poe 35. Assonance Assonance is the similarity or repetition of a vowel sound in two or more words. Assonance is sometimes called partial or near rhyme. Lake and stake are rhymes. Lake and fate are assonance. Base and face are rhymes, but base and fade are assonance. 36. Consonance Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds within a line of verse. Consonance is similar to alliteration except that consonance doesn’t limit the repeated sound to the initial letter of the word. from Crossing the Bar But such a tide as moving seems asleep, Too full for sound and foam, from In Memoriam Oh yet we trust that somehow good Will be the final goal of ill To pangs of nature, sins of will, Defects of doubt, and taints of blood; from The Bugle Song The splendor falls on castle walls And snowy summits old in story; The long light shakes across the lakes, And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 37. Refrain A refrain is the repetition of one or more phrases or lines at intervals in a poem, usually at the end of a stanza. The refrain often takes the form of a chorus. The Smoking World Tobacco is a dirty weed: I like it. It satisfies no normal need: 11 I like it. It makes you thin, it makes you lean, It takes the hair right off you bean, It’s the worst darn stuff I’ve ever seen: I like it. G. L. Hemminger 38. Repetition Repetition is the reiterating of a word or phrase within a poem. The Hammers Noise of hammers one I heard, Many hammers, busy hammers, Beating, shaping, night and day, Shaping, beating dust and clay To a place; saw it reared; Saw the hammers laid away. And I listened and I heard Hammers beating, night and day In a palace newly reared, Beating it to dust and clay; Other hammers, muffled hammers, Silent hammers of decay. Ralph Hodgson DEVICES OF SENSE 39. Figure of Speech A figure of speech is an expression in which the words are used in a non-literal sense to present a figure, picture or image. 40. Kinds of Figures of Speech The basic figures of speech are: a) simile b) metaphor c) personification d) synecdoche e) metonymy f) hyperbole g) litotes h) antithesis i) apostrophe j) symbol 12 41. Simile A simile is a direct or explicit comparison between two usually unrelated things indicating a likeness or similarity between some attributes found in each thing. A simile uses like or as to indicate the comparison. In the comparison John swims like a fish, the grace and naturalness with which John swims is compared with that of a fish. Literally, it would be impossible for John to swim like a fish because of his human nature. However, we can imagine the figure or image of a very skilled and graceful swimmer beneath the surface. from A Red, Red Rose O My love’s like a red, red rose That’s newly sprung in June. O my love’s like a melody That’s sweetly played in tune. Robert Burns 42. Metaphor A metaphor is an implied comparison between two things, usually unrelated, indicating a likeness or analogy between attributes found in both things. A metaphor, unlike the simile, doesn’t use like or as to indicate the comparison. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All the world’s a stage. She was peaches and cream. Fred’s a pig at the table. The screaming headlines announced the murder. Life’s a short summer, man a flower. Fog The fog comes On little cat feet. It sits looking Over harbor and city On silent haunches And then moves on. Carl Sandberg Refrain from My Love and My Heart But my love she is a kitten, And my heart’s a ball of string. Henry Leigh 13 43. Personification Personification is the giving of human characteristics to inanimate objects, ideas, or animals. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The wind whistled. Her heart cried out. Bright April shakes out her rain-drenched hair. (S. Teasdale) The screams of cut trees . . . (Crane) The dusky night rides down the sky. (H. Fielding) The waves beside them danced. (Wordsworth) Time, the subtle thief of youth . . . (Milton) Death be not proud, though some have called thee Mighty and dreadful . . . (Donne) from Chicago Hog-Butcher for the World, Toolmaker, Stacker of Wheat Player with Railroads and the Nation’s Freight-Handler; Stormy, husky, brawling, City of the Big Shoulders Sandburg 44. Synecdoche (si nek’ de ki) Synecdoche is the technique of mentioning a part of something to represent the whole. 1. All hands on deck! (hands = sailors) 2. Give us this day our daily bread. (bread = food or sustenance) 3. A sail! A sail! (sail = ship) from Casey at the Bat Ten thousand eyes were on him as he rubbed his hands in the dirt, Five thousand tongues applauded when he wiped them on his shirt; 45. Metonomy (me ton’ e mi) Metonomy is the substitution of a word naming an object for another word closely associated with it. 1. Pay tribute to the crown. (crown substituted for king) 2. The White House had decided. (White House = President) 3. The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen = reason, sword = brawn) 4. He had to sweat for his bread. (sweat = hard work) 14 46. Hyperbole (hi pur’ be li) Hyperbole is an exaggeration of the sake of emphasis and is not to be taken literally. 1. 2. 3. 4. sweat to death rivers of blood as old as time million times a day From The Man With the Hoe Bowed by the weight of centuries he leans Upon his hoe and gazes on the ground, The emptiness of ages on his face, And on his back the burden of the world. Edwin Markham From A Red, Red Rose Till a’ the seas go dry, my dear, And the rocks melt wi’ the sun! And I will love thee still my dear Robert Burns 47. Litotes (li’ te tez) Litotes is an understatement and is achieved by saying the opposite of what one means or by making an affirmation by stating the fact in the negative. It can be considered the opposite of hyperbole. An example would be to call a fat boy skinny or to call a slow boy speedy. 48. Antithesis (an tith’ e sis) Antithesis is a balancing or contrasting of one term against another. Man proposes, God disposes. Pope Fair is foul, and foul is fair. Shakespeare from A Psalm of Life Life is real! Life is earnest! 15 And the grave is not its goal; Dust thou art, to dust returnest, Was not spoken of the soul. Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, Is our destined end or way, But to act, that each tomorrow Find us better than today. Art is long, and time is fleeting 48. Antithesis (continued) And our heats, though stout and brave, Still, like muffled drums, are beating Funeral marches to the grave. Longfellow 49. Apostrophe (a pos’ tre fi) Apostrophe is the addressing of someone or something, usually not present, as though present. Oh Captain! My Captain! Our fearful trip is done. Walt Whitman Death be not proud, though some have called thee Mighty and dreadful, . . .. John Donne Break, break, break, On thy cold grey stones, O Sea! Tennyson 50. Symbol A symbol is a word or image that signifies something other than what is literally represented. The cross is a symbol for Christianity. The donkey and the elephant are symbols of two American political organizations.