map of ancient egypt

New Orleans Museum of Art Teacher’s Manual THE QUEST FOR IMMORTALITY: Treasures of Ancient Egypt October 19, 2003 - February 25, 2004 Teacher’s workshops September 23, 2003 September 30, 2003 October 4, 2003 INTRODUCTION TO THE TEACHER’S MANUAL This learning resource is intended for teachers of students in Grades 1-12 and in many cases must be adapted for specific grade levels. We hope that you will use the manual to help your students gain an in-depth knowledge of ancient Egypt. This Teacher’s Manual was created in association with the exhibition THE QUEST FOR IMMORTALITY: Treasures of Ancient Egypt. This exhibition is organized by the United Exhibits Group, Copenhagen, and the National Gallery of Art, Washington, in association with the Supreme Council of Antiquities, Cairo. Cover: Osiris Resurrecting, Twenty-sixth Dynasty, 664 - 525 BCE gneiss, with a headdress in electrum and gold Height 11 5/8 in; width 7 1/6 in; depth 27 7/8 in. From Horbeit The Egyptian Museum, Cairo THE QUEST FOR IMMORTALITY: Treasures from Ancient Egypt New Orleans Museum of Art Teacher’s Manual Written by Tracy Kennan, Curator of Public Programs, NOMA Kathy Alcaine, Curator of Education, NOMA with excerpts from the exhibition catalog The Quest For Immortality: Treasures Of Ancient Egypt Edited by Allison Reid, Assistant Director for Education, NOMA Graphic production by United Exhibits Group, Copenhagen, Denmark This workshop and its accompanying materials were underwritten by The RosaMary Foundation TABLE OF CONTENTS Introductory Essay Map of Ancient Egypt Gods in the Ancient Egyptian World The Amduat Story: The Voyage of the Sun Through the Twelve Hours of Night List of Images Comparative Timeline Curriculum Objectives Hieroglyphics Chart Glossary Bibliography 1 5 7 10 13 23 26 29 30 32 QUEST FOR IMMORTALITY: TREASURES OF ANCIENT EGYPT INTRODUCTORY ESSAY The Quest for Immortality: Treasures of Ancient Egypt features art and artifacts from the New Kingdom through the Late Period of ancient Egypt. Dating from nearly 4000 years ago, objects from Quest for Immortality illustrate the complex religious system of the ancient Egyptian civilization. The exhibition features works from the tombs of the Eighteenth Dynasty rulers Thutmose III (1479 - 1425 BCE) and Amenhotep II (1427 - 1400 BCE), as well as Late Period objects that illuminate the Egyptian belief in the promise of a glorious rebirth after death. Jewelry, stone statues, furniture and mortuary items illustrate the Egyptian’s belief in the afterlife, as many of these items were placed inside tombs intended for use in the next world. A belief in life after death influenced every aspect of the Egyptians’ lives. Nearly everything that we know about the ancient Egyptians is derived from careful study of their funerary rituals and burials. The Great Pyramids, wonders of the ancient world, are not simply the burial sites of Old Kingdom pharaohs. They were designed to be the first stop of a king’s journey into the netherworld. Their shape echoes the rays of the sun and their towering heights reach toward the sky. Egyptian kings were revered in both life and death as protectors of everything within the Egyptians’ world. Pharonic power was believed to be divine, for Egyptians to celebrate the life of their king was also a way of worshipping their gods. In turn, the gods protected the king and his people, assuring their well-being with the annual flooding of the Nile River, which deposited a rich, fertile silt over the delta providing for healthy crops. Ancient Egyptian history is divided into distinct periods, punctuated with Intermediate Periods signifying times of unrest and insecurity. Throughout its history, Ancient Egypt was ruled by families of rulers designated by Dynasty. During the Old Kingdom (2686 - 2125 BCE), Egypt was ruled by members of the Third through the Eighth Dynasties. The Fourth Dynasty built the Great Pyramids and the Sphinx in Giza. Middle Kingdom rulers of the Eleventh through the Fourteenth Dynasties (2055 - 1650 BCE) moved the capital from Memphis to Thebes and buried their dead in rock-cut tombs. During the New Kingdom (1150 - 1069 BCE), rulers from the Eighteenth Dynasty continued to build rock-cut tombs and erected elaborate temples to the principal Egyptian gods. The temple districts in Luxor and Karnak were constructed by rulers during the Eighteenth Dynasty and expanded by pharaohs in the Ramessid Period. Pharonic power peaked during the New Kingdom when Egyptian rule encompassed the largest amount of land, reaching up into Mesopotamia and down to Nubia during the rule of Thutmose III. The Late Period encompasses Dynasties Twenty-six through Thirty (664 - 332 BCE) and marks the era just before Ptolomaic and Roman influence. 1 Egyptian society was hierarchic and may be perceived as pyramidal. The pharaoh and his family formed the apex. New Kingdom pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in royal fashion and with all the amenities needed for immortal life. Nobles, government officials, and priests formed a second tier in life and were buried near their rulers, sometimes in elaborate tombs. Scribes, scholars and artisans, who were revered for their ability to read and write hieroglyphs and their specialized skills, were also highly-valued citizens within the Egyptian society. Noble families, temple priests and even the pharaoh depended on scribes to keep track of their wealth. Because of their honored position in society, scribes and scholars often received lavish burials. The majority of Egyptians, the base of the pyramidal society, worked as farmers and laborers who split their time between tending their crops and building temples or a mortuary complex for the pharaoh. Scribes, whose ability to read and write hieroglyphs was associated with magic, were especially revered by their kings. Hieroglyphics is a writing style that combines characters that representing sounds with pictorial signs, depicting entire words or ideas. Hieroglyphs were indecipherable until the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799 during the Egyptian campaigns of Napoleon Bonaparte. The stone contained writing in Greek, Egyptian hieroglyphs and demotic, a later Egyptian language. A young linguist by the name of Jean-François Champollion translated the hieroglyphs in 1822. The Egyptian perception of what awaited them in the afterlife relied heavily on the conditions of their daily lives. The sun, sand, and the Nile River figured prominently in their routines. Egyptians depended on the annual flooding of the Nile to deposit rich silt for their crops. Boats, reeds, and the animals that lived in the desert and along the river were part of life in this world and were expected to appear in the netherworld. Animals both loved and feared in life appeared on the walls of Egyptian tombs as protectors of the deceased. Animals were also used in Egyptian cosmology, as most gods were associated with the traits of various species. Egyptian religion was polytheistic and permeated almost every aspect of life along the Nile. Hundreds of Egyptian gods have been identified, each having his or her own personality and purpose. Many of these gods were regional or served various elements of one concept, such as Kephri, the rising sun, and Atum, the setting sun--both are aspects of the sun god Re. Myths told about the gods’ origins and exploits often explained puzzling natural changes such as night into day and life into death. Many of the Egyptian gods were identified with animals and the strengths that were associated with them. Throughout the more than 3000 years of Egyptian civilization the pantheon grew, as it incorporated regional gods of Thebes, Memphis and the divine district of Heliopolis. The primary Egyptian god was Re or Amun-Re, the sun god and supreme deity. Re was credited with creating the universe from liquid matter. His nightly visit to the netherworld during the twelve hours of the night assured that the sun would rise the next morning. During this nightly journey, Re would sail into the netherworld to visit the deceased. The rising sun signified the completion of Re’s journey and assured the continuation of the daily cycle. It was believed that upon his death, the Pharaoh would join the god on this journey. 2 Osiris was one of the most popular and well-known gods. His domain was the netherworld. With Re, he presided over the Judgment of Osiris, the ceremony during which the soul of the deceased is weighed against the feather of truth, Maat, to determine whether it may pass into eternal life. The goddess Isis was celebrated as the most enduring and beloved goddess of ancient Egypt. She was the wife of Osiris and the mother of Horus. Isis had strong associations with regeneration, birth and magical protection. Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis, was known as the falcon god. He reigned as god of the sky and served as the embodiment and protector of the king. Another popular goddess was Hathor, the wife of Horus and guardian of the sun and stars. She was considered a protectress of women and children and was the patron goddess of music, dance, love and joy. Anubis, the jackal-headed god, played an important role in the passage from life into the afterlife. He was the god of embalming and carefully guarded over the mummification process. Thoth, usually represented as an ibis or an ibis-headed human, held a high position amongst the gods. He was known as the patron of knowledge, wisdom, science and medicine. He was a measurer of time and is also credited with inventing hieroglyphics, arithmetic and astronomy. Khepri was represented by a scarab beetle and signified the rising sun and rebirth. The Egyptians were keen observers of their natural world, and their religious beliefs were a reaction to the world around them. They believed that after death they would enter a world much like the one that they knew, only better. Crops grew taller, imperfections of the body were healed, and disease did not exist in the afterlife. Careful preparations had to be made to ensure happiness in the netherworld. The first step in these preparations was to prepare the human vessel. Egyptians believed that a soul could not survive without a body, and so they developed the process of mummification to prepare the physical body for eternity. The mummification process was designed to prepare the body for immortal life. The first step was to remove the brains, which were not considered to hold much importance. Then a slit was made in the side of the body and the vital organs were removed. The lungs, stomach, liver, and intestines were treated separately and then stored in canopic jars and placed in the tomb. The heart was left in place, as it would be needed for the Weighing Ceremony during the Judgment of Osiris which would determine the ultimate fate of the deceased. The inside of the body was then filled with linens and natron salt and left for a period of seventy days to draw out moisture. Then the body was wrapped in linen. A plaque was often put into place over the area where the slit had been made. Netting, a mask, jewelry and other amulets were placed within the linen wrappings or on the mummy to help protect the body on its journey to the next world. The mummy was then placed in coffins, sarcophagi and a tomb--all of which were inscribed with deities and protective spells to assure safe passage to the netherworld. Many other items that the Egyptians believed would be needed in the netherworld were placed inside their tombs. Furniture, tools and games are among the objects included in the tombs of kings and high officials. Royal tombs were also outfitted with Ushebti, funerary statuettes intended to perform manual tasks, such as planting or building for the pharaoh in the afterlife. A boat or a model of a boat was often included in the tomb of a king. In life, the Nile River was central in almost all aspects of Egyptian life. The king often traveled by boat in order to inspect his lands, visit temples, or command the military. It was believed that the Pharaoh would travel by boat to the netherworld. 3 The exhibition includes a reproduction of the tomb of Eighteenth Dynasty ruler Thutmose III. His military campaigns expanded the Egyptian borders northeast into Mesopotamia and south into Nubia. He was actually the first Egyptian king to be called Pharaoh, which means Great House. His tomb reveals the painted story of the Amduat, the complete tale of the journey from this world into the next. The Amduat, a funerary text reserved primarily for royalty, describes the deceased king’s union with Re and their trip to the netherworld where the king attains immortality. Funerary texts, including Books of the Dead, were part of a long tradition in Egyptian burials. The Amduat served as a sort of guide book to assure safe passage from one world into the next. The painted description is like a roadmap, it describes the trip in a geographical fashion. Each of the twelve hours of the night are illustrated as the king joins the god Re on his voyage to the netherworld. While the Amduat served as a guide for the Pharaoh, it also assured all Egyptians that day would follow night and that life as they knew it would continue. The cycle of life was taken very literally by Egyptians. Their constant quest for immortality meant pleasing the gods in this world so as to be welcomed by them in the next. Egyptian culture endured for nearly 3000 years. Religion, which played an important role in every aspect of their lives, featured an intense focus on achieving immortality and on preparing the body and the spirit for life in the netherworld. The twelve hours of the Amduat, which explain the kings passage through the night, also represents the orderly passage of time. It assured all Egyptians that life as they knew it would continue along the Nile. 4 MAP OF ANCIENT EGYPT Bryan, Betsy and Eric Hornung, ed. A Quest for Immortality: Treasures of Ancient Egypt. Washington: National Gallery of Art, and United Exhibits Group, in association with Prestel Publishers, 2002, pg. xv. 5 Map of Ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptian civilization formed along the Nile River, which stretches over four thousand miles from its headwaters in Ethiopia and Sudan, over vast tracks of arid desert and into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile was the single most important natural element in the formation of Egyptian civilization. The desert formed a natural barrier around Egypt, protecting her people from neighbors, and enabling them to sustain many centuries of tradition. Egypt depended on the Nile and its seasonal floods, which deposited new layers of fertile soil on the flood plain. Ancient Egyptians devised canals and irrigation ditches to extend water usage for their crops of corn, wheat barley and vegetables. The river was also a major transportation route and habitat for many species of fish and animals. The southern portion of Egypt that lay upriver is referred to as Upper Egypt. Lower Egypt is the portion nearest the Nile Delta and is to the north. Egyptians buried their kings on the west bank of the river, closest to the setting sun. The Old Kingdom capital, Memphis, is located in Lower Egypt. During the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptian capital was moved to Thebes in Upper Egypt. 6 GODS IN THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN WORLD Ancient Egyptians believed that their gods inhabited every part of the natural world. Some gods had specific incarnations and would then become a different god. For example, there are major gods who explain certain phenomena like Re, the sun god and his incarnation Khepri, the rising sun; and some that are a manifest of a function, like Maat, the personified symbol of truth. Several of the gods are prominent in the quest for immortality. On the walls of Thutmose III’s tomb there are over 700 gods and goddesses depicted, all of whom interact with the king when he comes to life again in the afterlife. Ancient Egypt lasted over 5000 years. It is not uncommon to find some gods to have more important or shifting roles at one time or another. Also, many gods were regionally important. The myths, duties, and attributes of the gods shifted throughout ancient Egyptian. Anubis This god is most often seen as either a jackal-headed god in human form or a seated black jackal. Anubis is frequently depicted as the embalmer, who tends to the mummy on its bed. In the final steps of mummification, he participates in the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony by supporting the head of the deceased. Anubis is also associated with the judgment of the dead at the Judgment of Osiris, where he tests the accuracy of the balance. The myth of Anubis is that he assisted Isis in the quest for and regeneration of the scattered limbs of Osiris. Hathor A goddess traced back to very ancient times, Hathor’s name means “Dwelling of Horus”, signifying that she is his wife. Hathor is consistently seen as a cow, and in human form she is most often seen with cow ears. She is also seen with cow horns and the sun disk, also seen with Isis. Hathor has a close connection with Re, in some cases as his daughter. As a goddess symbolized by a cow, milk is sacred to her, and so she is concerned with nourishment and child-rearing. She is strongly associated with love, regeneration, song and dance. She is invoked for healing and to encourage pregnancy. She is the guardian of the sun and stars. Hathor’s numerous functions and attributes virtually make her a universal goddess. Horus As the son of Isis and Osiris, Horus is represented as a falcon or a falcon-headed human. Sometimes he is seen as a child with his mother. Horus is the son and heir of Osiris and instrumental in securing his father’s royal inheritance. He is therefore often equated with the pharaoh as his protector. Horus watches over and guides souls through the underworld. The wedjat, or Eye of Horus, is his symbol. The eye and eyebrow of the wedjat are human in form but the markings below the eye resemble a falcon’s eye. Horus and Seth represent order and chaos, respectively, and are always in opposition. In one particular incident, Seth tore out one of Horus’ eyes. After Horus defeated Seth, the eye was restored. The wedjat came to symbolize the triumph of good over evil. It offers completeness, healing and magical protection. 7 Isis Isis is seen as a beautiful young woman with a crown of cow horns and a sun disk. She would eventually assume the functions of universal mother goddess and queen of the sky in ancient Egyptian history. She shares a number of characteristics with Hathor, both being patronesses of ecstasy and fertility and being deities of the sky. The original functions of Isis had to do with birth and funerary rituals since she protected and complemented her consort, Osiris. In the myth of Osiris, Isis searched the land of Egypt for the scattered limbs of Osiris after Seth dismembered him. Isis restored the god to life and was able to bear a son by him. She cared for her son, Horus, and is often represented holding a young Horus. Khepri An incarnation of Re, Khepri is represented by a scarab beetle and signifies the rising aspect of the sun and rebirth. Dung beetles sometimes laid their eggs in feces. When the Egyptians witnessed the newborn beetles emerging from dung balls, they believed they had been created out of nothing. Beetles were also seen pushing balls of dirt, dung or food across the ground. The Egyptians associated this with the sun god pushing the sun across the sky. Khepri represents rebirth and signifies the new day and the reappearance of the sun god each morning after his nightly journey in the netherworld. Maat Maat is represented as a goddess but is more of an abstract idea rather than a god with a specific realm, attributes or characteristics. In ancient Egyptian, Maat means “things as they ought to be,” and is considered to be the order of the universe. Maat governs all aspects of life such as regulating the flow of the river, the daily cycle of sunrise and sunset as well as the morals of the way people live their lives. Maat is represented with a feather on her head. The feather is the hieroglyphic symbol of Maat and the concept of truth. She appears in the weighing of the heart ceremony at the Judgment of Osiris, during which the heart of the deceased person is weighed against her feather. Nut Originally a personification of the sky, Nut appears as a young woman with a pair of large wings or as a schematic female figure stretched out with her hands and feet touching the ground. Her body is blue and arrayed with figures of stars. Nut swallows the sun each evening, and within her, the solar deity travels to the netherworld. The sun is reborn twelve hours later as she gives birth to him in the east. She is a funerary goddess because she takes the sun through the underworld and the deceased person would expect to be wrapped in her body and become part of the heavenly host. 8 Osiris As god of the netherworld, Osiris presides over the travels of the sun and of the deceased during the twelve hours of the night. He is usually represented as a mummified man sitting on a throne or standing. He wears either the crown of upper Egypt or the tall atef crown with two plumes at either side. Osiris may also hold the flail and the crook, symbols of royal authority, or symbols of the master and shepherd. The king identified himself with Osiris and was often represented holding the same symbols. Osiris was said to have been murdered by his brother Seth. His wife Isis with her sister Anubis found and rescuscitated the god. Thus, Osiris is associated with rebirth and was relied upon to guide the deceased through the process of regeneration. In a parallel vein, Osiris is the corn king, representing the grain that dies in autumn and comes back again in the spring. He also represents the cyclical phenomenon of nature, seasons and water. In the netherworld, the god presides over the Judgment of Osiris where the heart of the deceased was weighed against the feather of Maat. Re Re represents the sun and is omnipresent in New Kingdom art and texts. He is seen as a universal deity, one of the primeval deities and ruler over all others. Re travels through the sky during the day and goes through the netherworld during night hours. The depictions of Re changes as the sun moves through the sky and the netherworld. For example, Re becomes Khepri as the rising sun and Atum as the setting sun. Egyptians regarded the sun as traveling through the sky in two boats, one for the day and one for the night. Re joins Osiris in the netherworld in his night boat and is renewed each morning as Khepri, the rising sun. Depictions of Re also take the forms of other gods. Re can be seen as a falcon or falcon-headed figure, a ram, a cat, or a scarab. Most often he will have a sun disk on his head, as well as an uraeus, the sacred serpent. Thoth A lunar deity and patron or knowledge and writing, Thoth is usually represented as an ibis or an ibis headed human. Occasionally he may be represented as a baboon, a symbol of wisdom. The ability to write hieroglyphs, putting ideas and words into a visual symbol, was considered a sacred and magical act. Thoth guards the sacred hieroglyphs and protects scribes. He is associated with Anubis in the Judgment of Osiris, appearing during the weighing of the heart ceremony. Thoth records the names of every just soul who passes through the Judgment. 9 THE AMDUAT STORY: THE VOYAGE OF THE SUN THROUGH THE TWELVE HOURS OF NIGHT From early in Egyptian history, there existed an explanation of what life was like in the netherworld, the place where the deceased journeyed after death. Egyptians linked the daily return of the sun to the travels of their principle god, Re or Amun-Re, the sun god. Every morning the sun appears, rejuvenated and refreshed on the eastern horizon, signifying the start of a new day. But what happened to the sun during the night hours? Egyptians envisioned their sun god traveling through the night on a boat on a river very similar to the Nile River. The sun god went to visit the deceased, to bring light into the netherworld while the living slept. In the New Kingdom it was believed that after death, the pharaoh would join the sun god on his nightly journey and, at daybreak, attain immortality. QUEST FOR IMMORTALITY: Treasures of Ancient Egypt includes a full-scale reproduction of the Amduat as painted on the walls of the tomb of Thutmose III (1479 - 1425 BCE). The actual entrance to the tomb of Thutmose III lies high above the valley in a narrow gorge in the rock and was rediscovered in February 1898 by the Antiquities Organization. The story of the Amduat is told in pictures with a map-like format in three registers that spread across the tomb of the pharaoh. What follows is a condensed version of what was believed to happen to the newly deceased pharaoh during the twelve hours of the night. Hour 1 The first hour begins when the dying sun slips beneath the horizon. The pharaoh unites with the sun god Re and enters the netherworld on his boat. He is greeted by gods and other creatures. Re appears in the boat as a ram-headed figure and also as a scarab beetle, the symbol of the morning sun. His appearance as a beetle during the first hour alludes to the ultimate goal of the trip, the sun’s rebirth. Hour 2 The sun god and his entourage journey down a river that runs through the netherworld, much like the Nile River through Egypt. Hathor leads the group as they travel through a watery, fertile region where crops grow to super-size. Farmers in the field hold large sheaves of wheat as the travelers pass by. Hour 3 More boats join the group as the pharaoh, the sun god and Hathor enter a watery region named the “Waters of Osiris”. In the upper register, gods rejoice, as the sun god appears, bringing light to the netherworld. Osiris appears in the third hour seated on a throne and preceded by a row of bird-headed gods wielding knives, prepared to slay any enemies of the sun god. 10 Hour 4 The journey begins to become more dangerous in the fourth hour, as a zigzag path appears to block their way. The waters have dried up and the solar boat must be carried across the desert. The boat magically turns into a snake that can slither across the sand. The group is now deep in the underworld and has entered a region of total darkness. In the middle register, ibis-headed Thoth, god of wisdom, hands the eye of the sun to falcon-headed Sokar for safekeeping. Other deities stand guard, ready to fend off any enemies. Hour 5 Five hours into their journey, the pharaoh and his companions reach the secret cavern of Sokar, guarded by a double headed sphinx. Here, the falcon-headed Sokar clutches the wings of a multi-headed serpent, holding back the chaos threatening the sun god. In the upper register, there is a burial mound of Osiris. Hour 6 During the sixth hour the travelers enter the realm of Sobek, the crocodile god. Here, at midnight, the soul of the sun god reunites with his corpse, which is represented by a horizontal body surmounted by a scarab. The corpse is protected by a five-headed snake. The union of body and soul brings light and eternal life to all of the blessed dead. Hour 7 The sun god must confront his archenemy, the serpent Apophis, when the evil snake swallows up all of the river water and the boat can go no further. Isis and other goddesses hurl magical spells that cut and bind Apophis and destroy his power. In the top register, deities decapitate and defeat other enemies. In the bottom register, Horus presides over twelve gods and twelve goddesses, with stars symbolizing the twelve hours of the night. Hour 8 The sun god and the pharaoh have made it through the worst part of their journey by the eighth hour. Re presents Thutmose III with a shining white gown to wear in the netherworld. Deities line the top and bottom registers. 11 Hour 9 Oarsmen steer the boat of the sun god as he brings provisions to those living in the netherworld. Clothing, food, bread and beer are distributed. Fire-spewing cobras light the way through the darkness. Hour 10 During the tenth hour of travel in the netherworld, Osiris and Sokar join the group traveling by boat. Egyptians who drowned in the Nile were of special concern, as their bodies had not been properly cared for. The drowned are mentioned here and assured of bliss in the afterworld. In the upper register a group of deities protect the red sun disk. Hour 11 As they near sunrise, Atum, the god of creation, appears. The snake of time ascends and is about to devour ten stars, representing the 10 hours spent so far in the netherworld. In the bottom register, knife-wielding goddesses have tossed the bodies of the sun god into pits. This punishment was thought to explain the blood-red color of the sun at sunrise. Hour 12 This is the hour of the sun’s rebirth. His boat is now preceded by a good serpent, the “world encircler”, through whose body the god must pass and emerge rejuvenated. Re now appears as a scarab beetle, his morning manifestation. The hand of Shu, the god of the air, appears to lift the sun out of darkness. The mummified body of Osiris stays behind in the lower register, while goddesses rejoice and raise their hands in jubilation from above. 12 LIST OF IMAGES THE PHARAOH AND HIS POWER 1 Sphinx of Thutmose III, Eighteenth Dynasty, reign of Thutmose III, 1479 - 1425 BCE; grandiorite. Height 13 in; width 8 7/6 in; depth 24 5/8 in. Karnak, Court of the Cachette. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The sphinx form combines the head of a man with the body of a lion. The lion-bodied king wears the royal headdress with a uraeus and the royal beard. The lion’s body evokes the animal’s latent power. Lions lived at the edge of the desert and were known to ancient Egyptians as guardians of the horizon and symbols of the sun. The lion form symbolized the pharaoh’s might. Ancient legends describe royal lion-hunting excursions into the desert during which pharaohs killed lions in order to protect their people. The sphinx also associates the ruler with the strength and valor of the lion. This was fitting for Thutmose III, who led some fifteen military campaigns abroad and extended ancient Egypt’s empire into Nubia and Mesopotamia. This Sphinx of Thutmose III was originally placed in the temple complex of Karnak. Thutmose III was especially fond of the sphinx form and had at least fourteen statues made in this guise. 13 2 Boat from the Tomb of Amenhotep II, Eighteenth Dynasty, reign of Amenhotep II, 1427 - 1400 BCE; painted wood. Height 19 11/16 in; length 92 1/8 in; depth 16 1/8 in. Thebes, Valley of the Kings. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Boats were an important mode of transportation for Egyptians and were especially utilized by the king, who traveled by water to inspect his lands, visit temples, and command the military. To facilitate travel on the Nile River, both upstream and downstream, these boats were equipped with masts and sails to move south with the wind and benches for oarsman to steer the vessel downstream to the north (the Nile runs south to north). Boats modeled after royal barges were believed to carry a deceased king to join the gods in the afterworld. The tombs of kings often contained full-scale or model boats to assure the kings safe-passage into immortality. This painted boat was discovered in the tomb of the Eighteenth Dynasty pharaoh Amenhotep II. It is painted with depictions of the pharaoh in various guises defeating his foes. Amenhotep II was known as a gifted horseman and archer, who often led his troops in battle during his thirty year reign. Wooden plaques at each end of the boat show the pharaoh as sphinx. At the front of the vessel, the king is shown in the guise of the falcon-headed Horus. Colors had specific meaning for the ancient Egyptians. Yellow and red stand for the sun, whereas green and blue refer to fertility, growth and rebirth, as well as remind the Egyptians of the Nile and the sky. Black is for the dark, fertile soil along the banks of the Nile and is the color of fertility. Amenhotep II’s eternal barque places the mighty deeds of the pharaoh within the cosmological realm of the sun god. 14 3 Amenhotep, Son of Hapu, as a Scribe, Eighteenth Dynasty, reign of Amenhotep III, 1390 - 1352 BCE; grandiorite. Height 49 3/16 in; width 28 15/16 in; depth 27 15/16 in. Thebes, Karnak, Temple of Amun-Re. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Amenhotep, son of Hapu, served the pharaoh Amenhotep III as a top government official. He is depicted as a scribe in a cross-legged position bent over his work. He is holding all of the necessary equipment for his position: a papyrus scroll across his lap and a palette of ink cakes over his shoulder. The scribe’s soft belly is an indication that he does not perform manual labor. This is a conventional pose for scribes and was in use throughout the Egyptian periods. The pose is deceptively humble, as scribes were highly revered in ancient times. They kept records, tracked wealth and maintained official documents. Some scribes also worked as architects, engineers and doctors. Amenhotep, son of Hapu was one of the most powerful individuals in king Amenhotep III’s government. The statue’s inscription identifies him as “prince, count, royal sealbearer, royal scribe”. The statue was prominently displayed in the Temple of Amun at Karnak to mark the scribe’s supervision over some of the pharaoh’s most important building programs. 15 THE EGYPTIAN PANTHEON 4 Gold Pectoral with Solar Boat, Twenty-second Dynasty, reign of Sheshonk I, c. 945 - 924 BCE; gold, lapis lazuli, and glass paste. Height 14 3/4 in; width 7 1/2 in; depth 1/2 in. Tanis, tomb of Psusennes I, grave of Sheshonk II. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. This pectoral, found in the tomb of Sheshonk II, depicts the nightly journey of the sun god making his way through the primeval waters of the netherworld protected by the goddesses Hathor and Maat. The gold pectoral is inlaid with lapis lazuli and colored glass paste. Re appears seated in his solar barque holding an ankh and a scepter. A diminutive version of Maat stands before him, while she appears again outside of the lapis disc with her wings spread to shelter the sun god from danger. Maat is identified by the solar disc and the feather of truth above her head, while Hathor is depicted with a solar disc and the horns of a cow. Above the scene the starry night is inlaid with lapis and covered in a line of gold stars. Horus, in the form of a falcon, perches atop the night scene wearing the combined crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. Beneath the god’s boat, water is identified by the stylized bar of wavy lines. The sides of the scene are framed by the heraldic plants of Upper and Lower Egypt, the papyrus and the lotus. The lower edge of the pectoral is lined with moveable lotus buds, alternately opened and closed. The lotus was a symbol of the solar cycle because the flower closes and sinks below the surface of the water each night only to reemerge in the morning. Hieroglyphic texts to the right and left of the boat identify Sheshonk and his ancestors. Other symbols include the protective eyes of Horus and the basket signs within the wing span of the goddesses. 16 5 Osiris Resurrecting, Twenty-sixth Dynasty, 664 525 BCE; gneiss, with a headdress in electrum and gold. Height 11 5/8 in; width 7 1/6 in; depth 27 7/8 in. From Horbeit. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The myth of Osiris, the Egyptian god of the netherworld, describes the god’s death at the hands of his evil brother, Seth, and his resurrection with the help of his wife Isis. Because Osiris was the first to defeat death and achieve immortality in a realm beyond the grave, he is the god most associated with resurrection and the underworld. In this Twenty-sixth Dynasty sculpture, Osiris is shown in the process of resurrection. His body is wrapped as a mummy, and the god is shown lying on his stomach with his head lifted. This stance depicts the moment when the god has rolled over from his back and lifts his head to eternal life. His headdress includes several elements which help identify the god. The upright ostrich plumes allude to his role of judging the souls of the dead when the heart of the deceased is weighed against the feather of truth. The ram’s horns and the sun disc refer to his association with the sun god Re. Osiris is connected to Re by the nightly visit of the sun god to the netherworld. The awakening god is shown with idealized features and is wearing the false beard often worn by kings and deities. Osiris Resurrecting is carved from gneiss, an extremely hard stone which is difficult to cut. His crown is made of gold and electrum, a combination of gold and silver, indicating that this was a precious object. 6 Isis with Horus Child, Late Period, c. 664 - 332 BCE; bronze. Height 10 7/16 in; width 3 3/8 in; depth 4 3/4 in. Sakkara, Serepeum. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The goddess Isis is credited with restoring life to her husband, Osiris, and then becoming pregnant with their son, Horus. This small bronze statue was probably offered as a temple gift during the Late Period, when bronze became a popular material for such creations. Here the seated goddess is shown in a typical fashion, as a female goddess wearing a uraeus crown and the horns of a cow with a sun disc between the horns. The iconography of Isis is similar to that of Hathor, as many of their attributes, such as the cow horns, were interchangeable. The Horus child is shown with a cap crown and uraeus to proclaim his godly role. The child is leaning back in the arms of his mother, as Isis holds him with one hand and gestures to her breast with the other. The forms are simplified. Isis wears a hair style with two long tresses over her shoulders and one down her back. The hieroglyphic text on her pedestal reads, “Isis gives life--Shep bastet (gift of the goddess Bastet), son of Horpakheredkanefer (Horus the child is a perfect ka [spirit])”. 17 7 Pendant in the Form of a Hathoric Head, Twenty-second Dynasty, reign of Osorkon II, 874 - 850 BCE; gold and lapis lazuli. Height 2 in. Mit Rahina (Memphis). The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. This pendant of gold and lapis lazuli depicts Hathor, goddess of love, music, beauty and the sky. Hathor was usually depicted as a cow, as a woman wearing a headdress made of cow’s horns and a sun disc, or as a woman with the ears of a cow. Here, she is shown in the third guise. Lapis lazuli was highly valued by the ancient Egyptians, who associated its dark blue color with the sky and with the Nile. The stone, which is a metamorphosed form of limestone, rich in the mineral lazurite, is not found naturally in Egypt and had to be imported from the Near East or present-day Afghanistan, making it very expensive. Gold was also a precious material associated with the gods and referred to as the “skin of the gods”. In this piece, the goddess is depicted wearing a crown representing the sky. She was one of the protective goddesses shown in the Amduat who guided and protected the sun god during his journey into the netherworld. Her name was often invoked by the dying so that they would be similarly protected in their afterlife. BURIAL PRACTICES AND MORTUARY GOODS 8 Bead Net and Gold Mask of Hekaemsaef, Twenty-sixth Dynasty, 664 - 525 BCE; gold, semi-precious stones, faience. Height 57 1/16 in; depth 1/4 in. Sakkara, tomb of Hekaemsaef. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The Egyptians believed that every soul would need its body in the afterlife and so they practiced elaborate funerary rites to preserve and protect the physical body of the deceased. Burial practices began with the mummification of the body during which the body was dried with natron salt for a period of seventy days and wrapped in linen. Upon burial during the Late Period, the body was often covered with beautiful, protective netting and then placed in one or more coffins and sarcophagi before it was placed in a tomb. This net is made of beads of lapis lazuli, feldspar, obsidian and gold. Hekaemsaef, Overseer of the Royal Boats, is identified in the row of golden hieroglyphs that runs down the middle of the net. The goddess Nut spreads her protective wings beneath a sun disc in a beaten gold inlay that is woven into the netting. The Four Sons of Horus are also present in the netting. The gilded mask is inlaid with eyes of feldspar and obsidian. The brows and lids are of lapis lazuli. The beaded collar is strung with eighteen rows of beads and capped at each end with beaten-gold falcon heads. Hekaemsaef’s mummy contained a large number of amuletic objects such as figurines in gold and scarabs of gold and stone. It was encased in a painted wooden coffin protected by a limestone sarcophagus. 18 9 Anthropoid Coffin of Paduamen, with inner board and lid, Twenty-first Dynasty, reign of the High Priest Pinudjem II, 1069 - 945 BCE; painted and varnished wood. Coffin: Height 77 15/16 in; width 21 5/8 in; depth 11 13/16 in. Inner board: Height 70 7/8 in; width 14 9/16 in; depth 4 3/4 in. Lid of coffin: Height 77 15/16 in; width 21 5/8 in; depth 13 3/4 in. From the tomb of Bab El-Gusus, found in 1891 in Deir el-Bahari. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Egyptians believed that a coffin should look like the person inside, so that the soul could find its way back to its body. The exteriors of the coffin that held the mummy of Paduamen are decorated with very elaborate designs and portraits of the priest. Paduamen was a high-ranking priest, who was, according to the inscription, "He who opens the doors of Heaven in the Temple of Karnak". This indicates that he accompanied the high priest of Amun into the holy shrine that held the statue of Amun-Re at Karnak. Such a position in society would have afforded Paduamen an impressive burial. The mummy board was placed directly over the wrappings of the mummy. It is almost identical in shape, decoration and coloring to those of the lid. Paduamen is represented in both images with his arms crossed across his chest wearing a headdress that exposes his ears. His portrait is youthful and idealized. On the coffin, the figure wears the false beard and holds an Isis knot, a symbol of protection, in his hand. The hands of the mummy board may have held another amulet at one time. Both the coffin and the mummy board are decorated with other protective symbols, such as goddesses with spread wings, scarabs, and eyes of Horus. Both are segmented with hieroglyphs, and divided into panels that depict Paduamen and his wife making offerings to the gods. 19 10 Ushebti of Yuya, Eighteenth Dynasty, reign of Amenhotep III, 1390 - 1352 BCE; painted wood. Height 9 3/13 in; width 3 1/8 in; depth 2 3/8 in. Tomb of Yuya and Tuya, Valley of the Kings. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Egyptians believed that the afterlife was very similar to the life that they knew, only better. In order to provide for all the needs of the immortal, ushebti (also spelled shabti or shawabti) were placed in the tomb to perform any labor that was assigned to the deceased in the afterlife. They are magical figures which can be called into duty by a spell that was inscribed on them. This ushebti is one of twenty which were found in the tomb of Yuya and Tuya, the parents of Queen Tiye, who was King Amenhotep III’s wife. Ushebti were typically represented in mummified form and with the characteristics of the person whom they were meant to serve. They often held agricultural equipment such as adzes, hoes or yokes; but that is not the case here. The hieroglyphic text consists of seven lines of inscription from Chapter 6 of the Eighteenth Dynasty’s version of the Book of the Dead. It reads: Illumination of Osiris, Yuya, he says: O shabti, as to an assignment of Osiris Yuya, for any works which are wont to be done in the god’s land as a man at his duty, indeed, or an obstacle implanted for [me], in order to plant the field, in order to irrigate the lands, to move the sand from the east to west, if one assigns you work, at any time daily [say] “Me, look at me.” 20 11 Ushebti Box of Djed-Maat-iuesankh, Twentyfirst to Twenty-second Dynasties, 1069 - 715 BCE; painted wood. Height 15 3/8 in; width 18 7/8 in; depth 10 5/8 in. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. This wooden box was designed to hold small ushebtis. It was believed that the ushebti would lie sleeping until the names and spells inscribed on them invoked them to work. The box was plastered and painted. The roof is barrelvaulted, yet the lids lie flat over the box and were held closed by wooden pegs. The box is decorated with painted scenes including, an image of the deceased, Djed-Maat-iuesankh, kneeling as she steers her boat. The hieroglyphic inscription reads, "The Osiris, the mistress of the house, the singer of Amun-Re, king of the gods, Djed-Maat-iuesankh, vindicated. Ferrying in peace to the Field of Reeds, that excellent bas may be received." On the short side of the box, we see an eye of Horus in the raised vault of the box top. In the lower register, the ka of the deceased is represented in bird form standing over a basket of food offerings. These images are similar to the types of paintings discovered on tomb walls. They represent the successful attainment of immortality. AMDUAT 12 Detail, the Fourth Hour of the Amduat in the burial chamber of the tomb of Thutmose III, Eighteenth Dynasty, 1479 - 1425 BCE; painted plaster. Valley of the Kings. The Amduat, a New Kingdom funerary text that gives an hour by hour account of what happens in the netherworld, was painted on the walls of the tombs of kings. The exhibition Quest for Immortality includes a full scale model of the tomb of Thutmose III with the painted story of the king's travels through the night with the sun god. In the first hour the pharaoh unites with Re and joins the sun god on his solar boat. They are greeted by gods, goddesses, baboons and fire-breathing serpents. The voyage continues in the second and third hours as the boat travels through the fields of the netherworld where gods continue to watch over the travelers and protect them. Obstacles in the journey begin to appear in the fourth hour, shown here. The zigzag path blocks the travelers descent, and the water on which they were traveling dries up and becomes sand--notice the change from zigzag pattern to solid black beneath the boat. Their boat turns into a snake that is able to pull the passengers across the sand. The night travelers have entered a land of complete darkness, the "Land of Sokar". Sokar is the God of the Dead in Lower Egypt and was associated with Osiris. In this dark portion of the journey, Thoth and Sokar can be identified protecting the solar eye, so that it may be resurrected in the morning. The travelers remain in the Land of Sokar during the fifth and sixth hours of the night. 21 13 The Twelfth Hour of the Amduat in the burial chamber of the tomb of Thutmose III, Eighteenth Dynasty, 1479 - 1425 BCE; painted plaster. Valley of the Kings. The twelfth hour of the Amduat depicts the successful completion of the nightly journey, as the sun god appears in scarab form ready to begin a new day. The travelers ran into many obstacles along their journey. In the seventh hour, the sun god Re met up with his worst enemy, the magical snake Apophis. With the help of other gods, the pharaoh and Re were able to fight off the terrible snake. During the remaining hours of the journey, Re made sure that Thutmose was prepared for his new life in the netherworld. At daybreak, during the twelfth hour of the journey, Re appears as Kephri ready to push the sun through the sky. All of the gods in the netherworld cheer, as the scarab pushes forward. Osiris appears in the bottom register in mummified form. When the sun god leaves their realm, the deceased sink back into the sleep of the dead. But the rebirth of the sun signifies the rebirth and rejuvenation of all of creation. 3000 -2686 BCE Early Dynastic Period Dynasty 22 COMPARATIVE TIMELINE (all dates are BCE) Ancient Egyptian Timeline World Timeline c. 5000 BCE Animals domesticated in Nubia; Corn domesticated in Mexico; Yangshao culture develops in China. c. 3500 Ancient Sumerians use the cuneiform alphabet on clay tablets. c. 3200 Wheeled transport develops in Mesopotamia. 5300 - 3000 BCE Predynastic Period 3200 BCE Approximate date for earliest hieroglyphs written in Egypt c. 3150 Possible date for unified Egypt. 3000 -2686 BCE Early Dynastic Period Dynasties I-ll Egypt is united 2686-2125 BCE Old Kingdom Theocracy develops, Pharaohs considered gods on earth. Dynasty III - 2686-2613 King Djoser's step pyramid (designed by Imhotep) built at Saqqara. It is the first monumental building of stone. Dynasty IV - 2613-2494 Pyramids of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure built at Giza. The sphinx is sculpted from rock. Astronomers create a solar calendar based on 365 days. Dynasties V-VIII - 2494-2160 2400 Earliest papyrus scroll with writing documented. Powerful and wealthy individuals have mastaba tombs. 2160 - 2055 BCE 1st Intermediate Period Dynasties IX-X Egypt splits into provinces that war with each other. Famine results. c. 3000 BCE Silk manufactured in China. c. 2800 The first stage of Stonehenge built; The horse is domesticated in Asia. c. 2600 BCE The wheel first used in the Indus Valley. c. 2500 Polynesians begin migrating through the South Pacific. 2334-c.2200 Akkadian Empire flourishes in the Ancient Near East. c. 2200 Hsia (Xia) Dynasty comes to power in China; Grain and livestock cultivated in Europe. c. 2000 BCE Akkadian language replaces Sumerian, whose writing remains in use for sacred literature. Potatoes cultivated in the Andes. Horse introduced to W. Asia. 23 Ancient Egyptian Timeline (cont.) 2055-1650 BCE Middle Kingdom Commoners practice mummification. Dynasty XI - 2055-1985 King Mentuhotep reunites Egypt. Dynasty XII - 1985-1773 Lower Nubia is conquered, irrigation is practiced, pyramids are built again. Dynasty XIII-XIV - 1773-1650 The Hyksos, a foreign people, settle in Egypt; Egyptians abandon Nubia. 1650 - 1550 BCE 2nd Intermediate Period Dynasty XV-XVI - 1650-1550 The Hyksos usurp Egyptian Rulers and make contact with rulers of Nubia. Dynasty XVII - c. 1580-1550 Egyptian military use horse drawn chariots. 1550 - 1070 BCE New Kingdom World Timeline c.1790 BCE Code of Hammurabi written. c.1700-1500 Evidence of ideographic script is found in China. c.1600 BCE Mycenaean civilization flourishes on mainland Greece. c. 1550 Last stage of Stonehenge constructed. Dynasty XVIII - 1550-1295 Egypt is unified once again, and expands to control Syria and Palestine. Kings begin hiding their tombs separate from c.1500 BCE Lima beans cultivated in Peru; Olmec civilization in Central America their mortuary temples in the Valley of the begins. Aryans invade India; four-part Kings. 1485 After ruling as regent for her caste system introduced. stepson Thutmose III, Hapshepsut declares c.1400 Phoenicians develop alphabet. herself Pharaoh of Egypt. c. 1380 1384 In China, writing is well established Amarna period - Akhenaten and Nefertiti by this time. establish and enforce a monotheistic religion based upon the solar disk, Aten. 1336 Tutankhamun becomes Pharaoh; he restores traditional religion. 1295-1069 BCE Ramessid Period Dynasty XIX -1295-1186 1290 Ramesses II, one of the most powerful pharaohs in Egyptian history, succeeds to the throne and lives to be at least 90 years old. Dynasty XX - Second Ramessid 1186-1069 Ramesses III repels dislocated tribes from Asia Minor (aka. Sea Peoples). Moses and the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt. 24 c.1250 Trojan War is fought. c. 1200 The Middle East enters the Iron Age. c.1200-1100 Mycenaean civilization collapses in Greece. Ancient Egyptian Timeline (cont.) 1069 - 664 BCE 3rd Intermediate Period Dynasty XXI - 1069-945 Tanite Egypt is divided. Egyptians trade for iron and iron tools. Some Egyptians perform secret reburial of royal mummies from plundered tombs Dynasty XXII-XXIV - 945-715 Lybian Egypt is further fragmented - many dynasties, including those with rulers of Lybian descent coexist. Art declines. Dynasty XXV - 747-656 Napatan Egypt is reunited under Kushite (Nubian) invaders, art and architecture once again thrive until Assyrians invade. 664- 332 BCE Late Period World Timeline c.1000 BCE Caste system in India rises. c.800-600 Upanishads written in India. 776 First Olympic Games held in Greece. c.753 Rome founded. c.750 Homer creates The Iliad and The Odyssey c.750-400 New Babylonians develop astronomical observation and record-keeping. 650 BCE First papyrus arrives in Greece from Egypt. 625 First coins struck at Lydia Dynasty XXVI - 664-525 (present day Turkey). The Assyrians withdraw and kings from Sais (the western delta) rule. Greeks begin 586 Nebuchadnezzar conquers Jerusalem. c.563 Gautama, the Buddha, born. to settle in Egypt. 551 Confucius born Dynasty XXVII 525-404 Persians invade and rule Egypt establis- c. 500 Zapotec culture founds Monte Alban; early writing developed in Oaxaca; China hing First Persian Domination cultivates crops in rows; Roman Republic Dynasty XXVIII- XXIX - 404-380 establishment. Dynasty XXX - 380-343 447 Athenians build the Parthenon. Last of the Native Egyptian Dynasties 354 The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus is Dynasty XXXI - 343-332 constructed. Second Persian Domination. 334-323 BCE Conquests of Alexander the Great. Macedonian Dynasty - 332-305 312 Rome's first aqueduct is finished. Alexander the Great frees Egypt from 280 The Colossus of Rhodes, one of the Persian rule and is declared Pharaoh. He Seven Wonders of the World, is finished. founds Alexandria which becomes one of 260 Buddhism is embraced by Emperor the centers of learning and trade in the anciAsoka of India, creating a rival to the ent world. 305 Ptolemy I, former general of Hindu religion. Alexander the Great, names himself King of c. 250 Mayan Lowland civilization begins Egypt. 229 The library at Alexandria is constructing public monuments. founded . 146 The Rosetta Stone is cut. 221 Construction of Great Wall 30 Cleopatra VII and Antony are defeated of China begins. by Augustus Caesar. 25 332-30 BCE Ptolemaic Period CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES Following are suggestions for classroom activities and research projects. In parenthesis you will find coordinating Benchmarks from the 1997 Louisiana Department of Education’s State Standards for Curriculum Development: Geography What river supported the Ancient Egyptian civilization? Research the way people lived on this river. What cities flourished on this river? Name other important rivers in world geography. (G-1B-E1; G-1B-M1-3; G-1D) What are the differences and similarities in climate between Upper Egypt, Lower Egypt and New Orleans? How does the climate vary in these areas depending on elevation and proximity to the river? (G-1C) Math The Egyptians used the fist as the basis of measuring the human body in art. Using your own fist as a standard of measurement, figure out how many fists your body is. How many fists measure from your knee to your foot? How many fists is your arm? How many fists is your head? (N-6-E; N-7-E; N-9-E; N-5-M; N-6-M. M-2-E; M-4-E; M-5-E; M-5-M; M-6-M; M-4-H) Measure the distance between New Orleans and Giza and Cairo to Luxor. Calculate the distances in miles and in kilometers. Describe how you get to these places and with what types of transportation. (N-6-E; M-1-E; M-4-E; N-5-M; M-4-M; M-2-H; G-1-A) Science The ancient Egyptians were heavily influenced by their natural surroundings. The flora of the Nile River inspired architectural forms like column capitals and other decorative details. The papyrus and lotus blossoms are frequently found in the art and architecture of ancient Egypt. Can you think of other things that may have inspired Egyptian architects? What about architecture today? What influences from nature can be found in our buildings? (LS-E-A; LS-M-D) How did the ancient Egyptians conduct mummification? What process do the cells of the body go through in order to be mummified? Discuss the chemicals used in the process. Where did they come from? (PS-H-D; LS-E-A; LS-M-A; LS-H-F) Discuss natural, astronomical phenomena such as the movement of the sun and stars in the sky. How did the ancient Egyptians explain this and what is the scientific explanation? (ESS-M-C; ESSE-B; ESS-H-D) 26 Discuss the agricultural processes that a society depends upon to feed itself. What were the annual cycles of ancient Egypt? What kinds of crops did the Egyptians produce? How did their understanding of the process of growing crops affect their religious beliefs? (LS-E-C; LS-M-C3, C4; SE-E-A; SE-M-A; SE-H-A) Social Studies Research how different cultures consider the afterlife. List the different religions and their concepts of the afterlife. How did the ancient Egyptians care for the memories of the deceased? How do many New Orleanians care for the memories of their loved ones? (H-1A; H-1B-E; H-1D-E; H1C era 2) The ancient Egyptians used many natural resources to create functional objects as well as artwork. List some of the natural resources that were available along the Nile River. List items that were imported from other areas. What did the materials represent or symbolize? (G-1C-E4, E5; G-1CM6; G-1C-H4; H-1C era 2; PS-E-A3) Language Arts and Reading With the hieroglyphs page provided, write your name and the name of your school in ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. (ELA-6) Discuss the mythology of the ancient Egyptians. What are the creation myths and the astronomical myths? How did the myths explain natural phenomena like the sun setting, rain and the annual flooding of the river? How are they different or similar to other myths around the world? (ELA-6; H-1C- era 2) Choose an artwork from the image list. Create a story describing the person or the scene. What happened before and after the scene? (ELA-3) What animals are represented as gods in ancient Egyptian mythology? What kinds of properties did these animals have that made them special? In our culture what animals are associated with sports teams? What properties are associated with these animals and the teams? Write a paragraph beginning with the sentence “If I were an animal ...” (ELA-2; ELA-3; ELA-6) Visual Arts Egyptian artists developed many conventions to help them describe action in their works. For example, scribes are often portrayed with their legs crossed and stylus in hand. Kings and queens are easily identified by their attributes of headdresses, fake beards and uraei. Victors are easily identifiable when they are shown with the vanquished at their feet. Look at Amenhotep, Son of Hapu, as Scribe. How would you describe this man? What do you think his occupation might have been? What kinds of attributes do artists use today? Depict yourself or a friend or family member using attributes to describe the interests, occupation or attitude of the sitter. (H-1C- era 2; CE1VA; AP-2VA; CA-4VA; HP-3VA) 27 The ancient Egyptians wrote on papyrus. Where did the papyrus come from? How was it made? Create your own paper by blending torn pieces of newspaper and water in a blender. Pour the mixture on a fine strainer and press out the water. After it dries on the strainer, use the paper to tell a story with hieroglyphs. (CE-1VA; CA-4VA; HP-3VA) Study the Amduat and the concept drawing a journey. Using stick figures, describe a journey that you took with friends or your family. Separate the journey into time periods. What happens at each period of the journey? (CE-1VA; CA-4VA; HP-3VA) Draw yourself as a sphinx. Draw your head with an Egyptian headdress and make your body in the shape of an animal. What attributes of the animal are you associated with? (CE-1VA; HP-3VA) 28 HIEROGLYPHICS CHART A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Family Guide to Quest for Immortality: Treasures of Ancient Egypt, National Gallery of Art, Washington, 2002. 29 GLOSSARY ankh: The Egyptian symbol for life Amduat: A text describing the sun’s twelve-hour passage through the night into the netherworld. atef crown: A tall crown flanked by plumes at either side and worn by kings and Osiris. Book of the Dead: A collection of spells that were placed within burials to aid passage to the next world after death. canopic chests: Chests or boxes designed to contain the four canopic jars. canopic jars: Vessels specially designed to contain the mummified viscera (organs) including the lungs, stomach, intestines and liver. The jars came in sets of four, and each of the Four Sons of Horus were assigned the duty of protecting the contents of one of the vessels. These gods include the human Imsety, the jackal Duamutef, the baboon Hapy, and the falcon Kebehsenuef. crook and flail: Both are part of the royal regalia. The pharaoh was often depicted holding these items crossed over his chest. The crook was a curved scepter and the flail may represent a fly whisk. These symbols were also associated with the god Osiris. djed pillar: The symbol of stability depicting a pillar of woven plants. It came to be associated with the backbone of Osiris. faience: A glass-like material made of crushed quartz, lime, plant ash, or natron. It is pressed into a mold, covered in glaze, and fired to form a vitreous-like material used to decorate items such as jewelry. feather of Maat: During the Judgment of Osiris, the heart of the deceased was weighed on a scale against the feather of Maat, the symbol of truth and justice. If the heart was light, the deceased was allowed to pass, but if it was heavy it was eaten by the devourerer and the deceased ceased to exist. Giza: A necropolis just outside modern Cairo. The site includes several cemeteries, the Great Pyramids, and the Great Sphinx. hieroglyphic writing system: Pictographs used to write the ancient Egyptian language. Judgment of Osiris/Tribunal of Osiris: During the journey in the netherworld, the heart of the deceased would be weighed upon a scale against the feather of the goddess Maat, the personification of truth and justice. Osiris oversaw this process. 30 ka: Part of the Egyptian concept of the soul. The ka came into being at the moment of birth and formed a type of double for a person. After death the ka continued to live on and needed to be sustained with offerings. lapis lazuli: Imported from northern Afghanistan, it is a dark blue stone prized by the Egyptians for use in amuletic jewelry. mummification: A process developed in ancient Egypt to preserve the remains of the deceased. The body was chemically cleansed and desiccated. It was then packed, perfumed, and wrapped in linen. Often the viscera were removed and embalmed separately and stored in canopic jars. natron: A naturally occurring salt composed of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate. It was a principal ingredient in the mummification process and in some temple rituals of purification. obelisk: A tall, tapering four-sided monument topped by a pyramidion. Opening of the Mouth ritual: Performed upon the mummy and the statues of the deceased before they were placed into the tomb. By a series of anointments, actions, and repetition of spells, the senses of the deceased were restored so that he could breathe, eat and move through the netherworld. sarcophagus: An outer container for a coffin; used to give the physical remains of the deceased an additional layer of protection. scarab beetle: Symbolic of the god Khepri and the rising sun. The scarab beetle became a powerful symbol of resurrection. sphinx: Most often a combination of the body of a lion with the head of a human. Kings desired to combine their own images with that of the lion in order to absorb the power of the animal. The sphinx was also associated with the sun god, Re. stele: a flat round-topped monument. uraeus: A symbol of kingship often added to the brow of the king as part of his headdress. It is the figure of a rearing cobra, representing the cobra goddess Wadjet. ushebti/shabti/shawbti: Funerary statuette that was often mummiform. The shabti was intended to stand in for the deceased in the afterlife to perform any necessary manual tasks, such as planting fields and clearing irrigation ditches. wedjet eye: The eye of the god Horus. Horus lost his eye in a fight with Seth, but the goddess Hathor was able to restore it. The eye of Horus became a powerful symbol of healing and protection. 31 BIBLIOGRAPHY & SUGGESTED READINGS AND WEBSITES Allen, William, ed. National Geographic: Treasures of Egypt. Collector’s Edition, vol. 5. National Geographic Society, 2003. Armour, Robert A. Gods and Myths of Ancient Egypt. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2001 Bryan, Betsy and Eric Hornung, ed. A Quest for Immortality: Treasures of Ancient Egypt. Washington: National Gallery of Art, and United Exhibits Group, in association with Prestel Publishers, 2002. (Exhibition Catalogue). Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1992. Ions, Veronica. Egyptian Mythology. London: Hamlyn Publishing Group, Ltd, 1968; reprint, New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1982. Krensky, Stephen. Egypt. New York: Scholastic, 2001. Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings, vols. 1 and 2. Berkeley, 1975. Lurker, Manfred. An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Egypt. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996. Macaulay, David. Pyramid. London: Houghton Mifflin, 1975. McDermott, Bridget. Decoding Egyptian Hieroglyphs. New York: Chronicle Books, 2001. Museum of Fine Arts. Egypt’s Golden Age: The Art of Living in the New Kingdom, 1558 1085 B.C. Boston, 1982. Mummies and Magic: The Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt. Boston, 1988. Reeves, Nicholas and Richard H. Wilkinson. The Complete Valley of the Kings: Tombs and Treasures of Egypt’s Greatest Pharaohs. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996. W. Stevenson Smith. The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. Revised by William Kelly Simpson. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981. Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2000. 32 www.ancientegypt.co.uk www.iwebquest.com/egypt/ancientegypt.htm www.ktca.org/newtons/13/mummy.html www.newton.cam.ac.uk/egypt www.nga.gov www.noma.org www.si.umich.edu/CHICO/mummy www.thebananamappingproject.com www.touregypt.net 33