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Towards an HIV Vaccine

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TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE why is it so hard to make an HIV vaccine and where are we now? Neal Nathanson, MD Emeritus Professor Department of Microbiology University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine 1 Estimated number of persons living with HIV/AIDS, December, 2004 1 million 8 million 26.8 million Global total: 39.4 million 2 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE g g g g g g g Why is it so hard to make an AIDS vaccine? ‘Sterilizing’ or ‘partial’ immunity? Immune correlate of protection? Cellular immunity: provides protection? Neutralizing antibody: a daunting challenge Cross-clade immunity? Current status of AIDS vaccines? 3 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE WHY IS IT SO HARD TO MAKE AN AIDS VACCINE? 4 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE RESEARCH EXPERIENCE • • • • • • HIV env protein fails to induce neutralizing Ab Live attenuated SIVs protect but cause AIDS First HIV infection may not attenuate a second HIV infection? Persistence of HIV and progression to AIDS Immunobiological questions must be addressed Mechanisms of vaccine protection? BIOLOGICAL ISSUES IMPLICATION 5 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE VAXGEN TRIAL OF rgp120 multiple immunizations, 3 year cumulative infection percentage Science 2003, 299: 1290 GROUP TOTAL TREATMENT PLACEBO VACCINE PLACEBO VACCINE PLACEBO VACCINE SUBJECTS 1679 3330 1508 3003 171 327 INFECTIONS 98 191 81 179 17 12 PERCENT 5.8% 5.7% 5.4% 6.0% 9.9% 3.7% WHITE, HISPANIC BLACK, ASIAN, OTHER 6 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE FIRST HIV INFECTION MAY NOT PROTECT AGAINST SECOND INFECTION? HIV INFECTION IN SEX WORKERS, NAIROBI, KENYA CASE # 3 OVERBAUGH ET AL, 2005, UNPUBLISHED HIV-1 viral RNA levels 4.5 4.0 D 3.9 A 2.4 1.7 4.1 log10 copies/ml 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 Estimated days since infection 101 485 -50 0 150 350 550 750 950 1150 126 2 0.0 1350 7 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE THE DAUNTING TRIAD: FAILURE TO PREVENT INFECTION; PERSISTENCE; LOSS OF CD4 T CELLS DYNAMICS OF HIV INFECTION ILLUSTRATING PROBLEMS IN PRE-EXPOSURE IMMUNIZATION 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 4 WEEKS HIV TRANSIENT INFECTION HIV (IMMUNIZED) VIREMIA (LOG10 PER ML) ? 8 5 YEARS 10 8 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE “STERILIZING” OR “PARTIAL” IMMUNITY? 9 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE “STERILIZING” OR “PARTIAL” IMMUNITY? For viruses causing acute infections, subjects who have been adequately immunized usually undergo an abortive infection when exposed to a potentially virulent wildtype virus Will such ‘partial’ protection confer adequate resistance to an HIV challenge or is ‘absolute’ protection (‘sterilizing’ immunity) needed? Do studies of immunized monkeys challenged with SIV provide a useful reference? Do studies of viral set points and survival curves in HIV-infected humans provide a useful predictor? 10 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE PROTECTION OF RHESUS MACAQUES AGAINST SIV SM E660 IV CHALLENGE BY RECOMBINANT VACCINIA (MVA) IMMUNIZATION Ourmanov, J Virology, 2000, 74: 2740 CONTROL RAPID PROGRESSORS 2 PROGRESSORS 3 RNA COPIES PER ML PLASMA GEOMETRIC MEAN 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 4 8 MVA gag-pol-env PROGRESSORS 1 NONPROGRESSORS 5 12 16 WEEKS AFTER CHALLENGE 11 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE VIRUS SETPOINT DETERMINES THE COURSE OF THE INFECTION Mellors et al, Science, 1996, 272: 1167; Whittle et al, COI, 1998, 10: 382. 100 90 <0.5 HIV-2 PERCENT SURVIVING 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 VIRAL SETPOINT 4-12 0.5-4 HIV-1 12-29 29-250 12 14 16 18 YEARS OF STUDY 12 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE IMMUNE CORRELATES OF PROTECTION? 13 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE CORRELATE HYPOTHESIS? Does protection correlate with a specific immune response parameter, such as antibody, CTL killing, or CD4+ proliferation? BARRIER HYPOTHESIS? Might a combination of antibody plus CTLs plus associated cytokine responses act in concert to constitute a sufficient barrier? Could different immunizing protocols protect by a different mix of immune defenses? 14 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE CELLULAR IMMUNITY PROVIDES PARTIAL PROTECTION 15 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE CD8 CELLULAR IMMUNE RESPONSE GOVERNS VIRUS SETPOINT Schmitz et al, Science 1999, 238: 857. VIRAL RNA (COPIES PER ML) 7 6 MONKEY A 7 6 MONKEY B 5 4 3 5 4 3 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 CD8 DEPRESSED DAYS AFTER IMMUNOSUPPRESSION 16 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE VACCINE FAILURE DUE TO ESCAPE FROM A SINGLE CD8 EPITOPE recombinant env-gag DNA/IL-2 vaccine; SHIV challenge Barouche et al, Nature 2002, 415: 335. LOG10 mRNA PER ML PLASMA 7 SHIV ESCAPE MUTANT (p11C DOMINANT EPITOPE) 6 1200 4 800 3 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 400 WEEKS AFTER INFECTION CD4 PER µL 5 17 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE NEUTRALIZING ANTIBODY: A DAUNTING CHALLENGE 18 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE NEUTRALIZING ANTIBODY INFLUENCES VIRUS SETPOINT chimp anti-HIV passive antibody; challenge: iv virulent SHIV (matched gp120) Shibata et al, Nature Medicine, 1999, 5: 204; Nishimura et al, JV, 2002 76: 2123 SHIV DNA (LOG 10 COPIES PER 105 PBMC) 3 CONTROL (4) N AB TITER <2 2 1 PARTIAL (4) N AB TITER 2.5-4 0 COMPLETE (2) N AB TITER 5-8 -1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 DAYS AFTER INFECTION 19 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE PASSIVE ANTIBODY PROTECTS MONKEYS AGAINST SUBSEQUENT CHALLENGE WITH VIRULENT SHIV Nishimura, 2002 PERCENT PROTECTION AGAINST SHIV CHALLENGE 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 SERUM DILUTION (1/X) PROVIDING 99% NEUTRALIZATION IN CELL CULTURE 20 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE MHC II SIV gp120 THE NEUTRALIZING ANTIBODY ENIGMA Using gp120, it is difficult to raise neutralizing antibody Using MHC Class II, anti-SIV neutralizing antibody can be readily induced INFERENCE? the problem lies with gp120 and not in any intrinsic ability of SIV to resist neutralization Query: is SIV gp120 a poor target for neutralization? Do gp120 neutralization escape mutants play a role? 21 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE HIV INFECTION INDUCES AUTOLOGOUS NEUTRALIZING ANTIBODY THAT SELECTS FOR ESCAPE VARIANTS Richman et al, PNAS 2003, 100: 4144 PLASMA NEUTRALIZING TITER MONTHS AFTER INFECTON 0 0 VIRUS MONTHS 6 675 <100 <100 <100 12 2670 1769 <100 117 18 2190 2247 556 122 <100 <100 <100 <100 6 12 18 22 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE THE NEUTRALIZING ANTIBODY ENIGMA gp120 CD4 binding site CD4 ligand domain IgG binding domain targets near the CD4 binding site permitting viral escape mutants if CD4 can dock why can’t IgG block attachment? 23 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE Influenza virus has a receptor site on each trimer head and can be neutralized by antibodies that bind to any of four different sites that are near the receptor binding site. Viral escape mutants can be selected for each of these neutralizing antibody sites 24 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE CROSS CLADE IMMUNITY? 25 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE THERE ARE ABOUT 10 DISTINCT CLADES (GENOTYPES) OF HIV-1 26 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE ARE THE ~10 CLADES DISTINCT IMMUNOTYPES? • • • • Will neutralizing antibody cross clades? Will cellular immunity cross clades? Relevance of conserved vs variable epitopes? Are multivalent HIV-1 vaccines needed? 27 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE MULTICLADE VACCINE IS EQUAL TO MONOCLADE VACCINE Rhesus monkeys immunized with env DNA @ 0, 4, 8 wks; rAdV env DNA @ 26 wks Tested 1 week post vaccine Letvin et al, 2003 env IMMUNOGEN BY CLADE mg DNA A 1.5 B 4.5 1.5 C 4.5 1.5 env RESPONSES BY CLADE IFN ELISPOT/106 PBL A 1200 1500 2500 B 2900 1200 2200 C 1300 2700 2600 28 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE CURRENT STATUS OF AIDS VACCINES 29 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE vaccine provides partial protection in SIV model rDNA plus rAdv (SIV239 gag, pol, env) immunization iv SIV 251 (heterologous) challenge Letvin et al, unpublished, 2005 100 Vaccinated % Survival 80 60 40 20 (n = 24) Control (n = 6) p=0.007 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Days Post-SIVmac251 Challenge P=0.007 p=0.007 30 TOWARDS AN HIV VACCINE lessons from poliovirus vaccine “In 1945, Professor Burnet of Melbourne wrote ‘While I was in America recently I had good opportunity to meet with most of the men actively engaged on research in poliomyelitis…The part played by acquired immunity to poliomyelitis is still completely uncertain, and the practical problem of preventing infantile paralysis has not been solved. It is even doubtful whether it ever will be solved.’ …most of us doing research on poliomyelitis in 1945 were mainly motivated by curiosity, rather than by the hope of a practical solution in our lifetime.” David Bodian, 1976 31 32
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