Educational Success for Deaf Children:What We Know, What We Don't Know, and What We Just Think We KnowMarc MarscharkCenter for Education Research Partnerships National Technical Institute for the DeafRochester Institute of TechnologyandDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of AberdeenAberdeen, ScotlandSupported byEducational Success for Deaf Children:What We Know, What We Don't Know, and What We Just Think We Know About:1.Foundations of learning and development2.Language –signed and spoken3.Literacy4.Cochlear implantsEducational Success for Deaf Children: Premise #1•Well-meant beliefs and misunderstandings have gotten in the way of progress(and therefore)•We have been looking in the wrong place(s)(and, actually, we know more than we think we do)LanguageThinking Learning Problem SolvingEnvironment/ExperienceEducational Success for Deaf Children: Premise #2(Marschark & Everhart, 1997)“…lack of understanding of the cognitive skills underlying educational interventions is the fundamental problem in the development of special education.”(Detterman & Thompson, 1997)Educational Success for Deaf Children: Premise #3“Deaf children are not hearing children who can’t hear.”Educational Success for Deaf Children: Premise #4Foundations of Learning and DevelopmentThe foundations of learning and development lie in interactions of language, experience, and learning for deaf (and hearing) childrenLanguageThinking Learning Problem SolvingEnvironment/ExperienceEducational Success for Deaf Children: Premise #2(Marschark & Everhart, 1997)The foundations of learning and development lie in interactions of language, experience, and learning for deaf (and hearing) childrenExample 1Predictors of Developmental Success forDeaf Children(and their families)•Early intervention •Quality of caregiver-child relationship•Sign language All of these entail interactions of language, experience, and learning for deaf children and their familiesInteractions of Language, Experience, and Learning for Deaf Children Example 20100200300400500600Vocabulary Size89101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536Age in Months(Anderson. & Reilly, 2002) Deaf kids, deaf parents0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Vocabulary Size 8 9101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536 Age in MonthsBottom-up and Top-down Aspects of ReadingTOP Knowledge conceptual strategic (words, things) (problem solving) metacognitive /metalinguistic____________________________discourse structuregrammarvocabulary morphologyphonology/orthographyBOTTOM Bottom-up and Top-down Aspects of Language TOP Knowledge conceptual strategic (words, things) (problem solving) metacognitive /metalinguistic ____________________________ discourse structure grammar vocabulary morphology phonology/orthography BOTTOM Bottom-up and Top-down Aspects of Cognitive and Social Functioning TOP Knowledge conceptual strategic (words, things) (problem solving) metacognitive /metalinguistic ____________________________ discourse structure grammar vocabulary morphology phonology/orthography BOTTOM ““Foundations of Learning and Development:Research to Practice•Surround deaf children with language–Use visual attention/communication strategies –Play “word” games (especially with categories/relations)–Read with them–Let them “overhear” you–Point out relations, connections, and alternatives•Be a parent, not a teacher (if you’re a parent, that is…)On Sign Language and Spoken LanguageA. G. Bell“Spoken language and sign language are equally effective in development and education” (Marschark, 1997)“Spoken language and sign language are equally effective in development and education” (Marschark, 1997)–But, they are not the same…and may lead to differences that affect learning (Marschark, 2006)On Sign Language and Spoken Language•Advantages of sign language fluency–Children in sign-based intervention programs have better developmental success than those in oral programs (social, language, earlyacademic)–Enhanced visual-spatial skills•Mental generation and manipulation•Sensitivity to change in peripheral vision•Ability to rapidly shift visual attention•How are these important? How can we them in the classroom?On Sign Language and Spoken Language•Advantages of spoken language fluency–Sequential/temporal processing and memory–Lateracademic achievement –Literacy?–Employment mobilityOn Sign Language and Spoken Language•But, only about 25% of deaf children develop speech skills sufficient for full educational access (Beattie, 2006; Cole & Paterson, 1984)–Language delays in oral settings are typical, even with intensive speech therapy (Geers, 2006) and CIs –There is much less evidence supporting oral methods than is generally assumed (Eriks-Brophy, 2004)•And, the causal links are mostly unclear–Who gets the phonologicalcodes used in reading?–Effects of residual hearing, age of hearing loss, parent involvement, etc.–Early expressive sign/speech skills predict later spoken/sign language skills•Early, effective access to fluent language, whatever its form, is the key for language development (and literacy, and academic achievement), not parental hearing statusOn Sign Language and Spoken Language•Surround deaf children with accessible language •Constantly seek to improve your sign skills–But don’t be surprised (or embarrassed) that children learn faster than you do•Follow the lead of your child’s strengths•Don’t believe the propaganda•Be involved!On Sign Language and Spoken Language: From Research to PracticeLiteracy“Deaf children graduate from high school reading at a 3rdto 4thgrade level.”-Teacher of deaf children in 2005 M.S. thesis citing a colleague who can remain nameless50% of deaf and hard-of-hearing 18-year-olds in the U.S. read below the 4thgrade level-Traxler (2000)“…children with one or two hearing-impaired parents have higher mean scores compared to the children with no hearing-impaired parents.” (Jensema & Trybus, 1978)“Deaf children of deaf parents are better readers than deaf children of hearing parents.”Padden, C. & Ramsey, C. (1998). Reading ability in signing deaf children. Singleton, J.L., Supalla, S., Litchfield, S. & Schley, S. (1998).From sign to word: Considering modality constraints in ASL/English bilingual education. Padden, C. & Ramsey, C. (2000). American Sign Language and reading ability in deaf children. Brasel, K. & Quigley, S.P. (1977). Influence of certain language and communicative environments in early childhood on the development of language in deaf individuals.Strong, M. & Prinz, P. (1997). A study of the relationship between American Sign Language and English literacy. Akamatsu, C.T., Musselman, C., & Zweibel, A. (2000).Nature versus nurture in the development of cognition.•ASL is correlated with reading and writing skills (Chamberlain, Morford, & Mayberry, 2000)–“Correlation does not imply causation”: language fluency•Spoken language is also correlated with reading and writing skills (de Villiers, Bibeau, Ramos & Gatty, 1993)–“Correlation does not imply causation”: residual hearing •It’s early language, not its modality that predicts reading skillPredictors of Reading Skill:What We Know and What We Don’t Know“Deaf children who grow up with parents who competently facilitate visual language interaction have higher reading achievement” (Karchmer & Mitchell, 2003)•ASL foundation + English-based signing?•Accessible speech + sign?•Family involvement (not just at school)•Reading as is not just about words on a page–Knowledge, problem solving, strategies, metacognition–Cumulative effects of language and learningand those whose parents expose them to both sign and print have the highest reading achievement (Marschark, 1993)•Cued speech does notfacilitate English literacy skills•Cued speech facilitates literacy skills in French(Leybaert, & Alegria, 2003; see Alegria & Lechat, 2005)Predictors of Reading Skill:What We Know and What We Don’t KnowCumulative Effects of Language, Learning, and Literacy•We know:–The achievement gap is not just in literacy(e.g., Jensema & Trybus, 1978; Traxler, 2000)–Similar challenges are seen in problem solving tasks (e.g.,Furth, 1964;Marschark & Everhart, 1999)–Similar challenges are seen in learning via sign language –regardless of parental hearing status (Marschark, Sapere, Convertino & Seewagen, 2004, 2005a, b)Why?•We know that deaf children (on average):–Do not adopt relational strategies in comprehension and problem solving (Banks, Gray & Fyfe, 1990; Ottem, 1980)–Do not have strong connections in their concept knowledge (McEvoy, Marschark, & Nelson, 1999)–Do not automatically apply prior knowledge to comprehension and problem solving (Strassman, 1997)–Do not show strong metacomprehension skills (Marschark et al., 2006)(we know more than we think we do!)“Is it really reasonable for us to expect deaf children to be reading on grade level?”You bet it is!Literacy: Research to Practice•Literacy begins at home!–Surround deaf children with language –Be a parent, not a teacher –Have reading materials in the home–Let your child see that you value reading–Read with your child–Have high expectationsCochlear ImplantsWhat We Know About Cochlear Implants•They’re here to stay•Model/brand of CIs does not make any difference •CIs provide mostdeaf children with somebenefit for hearing and language•CIs can be valuable even if they only provide access to environmental sounds•Children with CIs are more like hard-of-hearing children than hearing children (vs. “stars”)What We Know About Cochlear Implants•CIs require team efforts, time, and lots of energy•Signing does not reduce CI success/effectiveness*•Most children with CIs still have significant language delays and in speech and language •CIs do not leave deaf children “stuck between worlds”•CIs do not make a child part of the “hearing world” •CIs have no particular (positive or negative)psychological impact on childrenCochlear Implants: Predictors of Success•Placement: closer to nerve endings•Shorter periods of profound hearing loss•Longer experience with implants•Age of implantation•Mode of communication in academic placement_____________________________________= about 50% of variability among childrenCochlear Implants: Predictors of Success•Greater pre-operative residual hearing•Prelinguistic communication•Speechreading skill•Cognitive abilities/intelligence•Child temperament •Parental information-gathering•How children with multiple challenges will fare•“Failure rate” vs. implant “stars” vs. discontinued use•How much exposure to spoken language is “enough”?•How to teach children with CIs•Value of alternative school placements, but…•Effects on literacy, but…•Academic impact, but…What We Don’t Know About Cochlear ImplantsCochlear Implants: Research to Practice•Surround deaf children with spoken andsigned language•Maintain use of hearing aids (even if they don’t help)•Be informed•Don’t listen to the propaganda•Recognize that it’s a long haul•Accept that your child is still deafWhat Does It All Mean?•Deaf children have different and more variable language, backgrounds, experiences, and academic preparation than hearing children –These differences affect academic progress because we do not understand them or “teach to them”•Parent involvement is essential to success –But parents should be parents, not teachers•There are few (if any) simple answers–We know more than we think we do•Together, we can do better