Charles G. Roland
S a ~ ~ ~ r n at m i s Hudson's Bay: T h e York Factory complaint of 1833-1836
The major problem facing h i s t o r i a n s of c l i n i c a l medicine i s the d i f f i c u l t y of r e t r o s p e c t i v e diagnosis. What disease (or diseases)
was the leprosy of t h e Bible?
What was t h e English "sweating sickness"?
What diagnosis should be given f o r t h e mysterious mal de l a Baie S t . Paul
that ravaged r u r a l Quebec in the 1780's?
The problem a r i s e s f o r many reasons. over t h e years: Some diseases have changed,
long before t h e advent of a n t i b i o t i c s , s c a r l e t fever Syphilis,
began t o be l e s s f a t a l and l e s s severe amongst survivors. although s t i l l a s e r i o u s disorder,
c e r t a i n l y i s a d i f f e r e n t disease
now than it was when it devasted western Europe i n the 1490's, k i l l i n g thousands. But most diseases probably have changed infrequently within
h i s t o r i c a l times.
A m c h more l i k e l y cause of d i f f i c u l t y i n matching previous descriptions with present-day diagnostic categories has t o do with changes
in medical theory and medical p r a c t i c e .
For example, even i n t o the
e a r l y 19th century fever was considered not so much a symptom of disease a s a disease i t s e l f . Occasional disorders did stand out a s d i s t i n c t e n t i t i e s and were recognized a s such; Uncomplicated malaria
that i s pathognomnic.
perhaps the c l a s s i c example of t h i s i s malaria. i s characterized by a rbythmicity of symptoms So-called t e r t i a n malaria shows i t s e l f in bouts
of c h i l l s , fever, and f i t s of shaking every second day, with no symptom a t a l l on t h e intervening days; i n quartan malaria t h e picture i s d i f f e r e n t
60
C. G. Roland
only i n that t h e r e a r e two symptourfree days intervening.
Thus when
. Lady Simcoe recorded h her d i a r y t h a t she had "the a y e " every second
day, i n the spring of 1794, we can say with considerable c e r t a i n t y Even in t h i s exceptional disease,
that she suffered from t e r t i a n malaria.
however, our c e r t a i n t y i s limited t o cases of t y p i c a l , uncomplicated malaria.
It i s possible f o r a p a t i e n t t o have t e r t i a n and quartan
Moreover, p a t i e n t s
malaria simultaneously, i n which case t h e rhymicity of t h e recurring bouts i s l o s t , a s i s our assurance of the diagnosis.
can, and do, have t o t a l l y urnelated diseases a t t h e same time that they have malaria. So we can a t best render convincing diagnoses i n
instances of uncomplicated malaria, which can help t o prove the existence of t h e disease in a given l o c a l i t y but can provide only a minimal f i g u r e f o r demographic purposes. I n most diseases we cannot come close t o t h i s degree of c e r t a i n t y . The descriptions of disease by p a s t p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t e n give us much l e s s information than we would l i k e , f o r several reasons. First, rarely
did medical men, before t h e end of the 19th century, prepare d e t a i l e d systematic case h i s t o r i e s of t h e type that a r e r o u t i n e , a t l e a s t i n teaching h o s p i t a l s , itself. Also, today. The collection of data was not a goal i n d a t a was dependent on t h e advance For example, t h e t h e m m e t e r
t h e c o l l e c t i o n of
of s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l knowledge.
had t o he invented, a p r a c t i c a l form had t o be designed t h a t would permit i t s use i n t h e l i v i n g human being, and large numbers of p r a c t i t i o n e r s had t o be convinced t h a t taking and recording a p a t i e n t ' s temperature was worthwhile, before t h i s valuable mode of discrimination could become useful i n separating t h e components of "fever". These a r e some of the reasons why retrospective diagnosis i s an exercise clouded by t h e r i s k of e r r o r .
It i s an exercise t h a t i s ,
nonetheless, worth attempting, and it i s in t h a t s p i r i t that t h e following study of the York Factory Complaint i s presented.
The York Factory Complaint
61
For three seasons,
s strange,
the winters of 1833-4,
1834-5,
and 1835-6,
epidemic,
sometimes f a t a l ,
disease ravaged the Hudson's Over these three
Bay Company post a t York Factory, on Hudson Bay.
seasons, a t o t a l of 32 individuals have been identified by name as suffering from the York Factory Complaint. The peak year was 1834-35,
when 18 new patients were identified and 2 who were ill the year before had relapses; three of these 20 died. The t o t a l establishment consisted
of about 30 employees of the Company plus an undetermined but smaller number of wives and children. Both the medical practitioners sent
to the post suffered from the disorder, which was characterized by abdominal colic, weight loss, nervousness, a marked tendency t o relapse, loss of function of the arms o r legs and, i n the most severe cases, convulsions, stupor, and death. disappeared, although some of After 1836, the disease seems to have i t s victims were affected permanently.
N firm diagnosis was made a t that time. o
O 9 March 1834, Robert Miles, the Chief Factor a t York Factory, n
wrote an angry l e t t e r , containing only thinly veiled threats of o f f i c i a l displeasure, t o Captain Benjamin Bell, master of the ship Prince Ruuert. Bell was a t Churchill. ship's Miles was angry because Bell had not sent h i s
surgeon t o York Factory, where there was no medical man but
" .:.myself
where there was much i l l n e s s :
and a l l the other officers
of t h i s place, have been and a r e s t i l l , unable, more o r less, to attend the public duty, f o r want of medical advice, since the beginning of
January, and a great proportion of our Tradesmen have been, and a r e the same."' Miles urged t h a t Edward Smith, surgeon to the Prince Ruuert,
be sent t o a i d them and he sent along a sleigh t o convey M r . Smith "so that no excuse can be wanting f o r a conveyance." Captain Bell succumbed to t h i s demand, and Smith arrived a t York Factory on 1834. Be found the place gloomy and peopled by sickly,
62
C. G . Roland
weak,
d e b i l i t a t e d persons who were,
however,
with one exception up
and awaiting h i s a r r i v a l : than men."' was himself
"some of them t o be sure more l i k e ghosts
A month l a t e r t h e r e remained much sickness, and Smith s u f f i c i e n t l y ill t h a t it was f e l t he would be unable t o Whether o r not he had t h e prevailing
t r a v e l t o Churchill on foot.3
i l l n e s s i s unknown but not l i k e l y i n t h e l i g h t of l a t e r observations t h a t a man d i d not s u f f e r from t h e disease during h i s f i r s t season a t York Factory. There were, however, exceptions t o t h i s r u l e , a s
w i l l be seen.
Our knowledge of t h i s f i r s t outbreak of the Complaint derives
largely from Smith, who prepared a long report a t t h e request of Robert ~ i l e s . When he wrote the r e p o r t , Smith had been a t York Factory f o r ~
7 weeks.
Be had had ample opportunity t o study t h e Complaint; he recorded
nine cases by name, a l l of whom had contracted t h e i r disease before h i s a r r i v a l there. He noted t h a t "generally speaking t h e Tradesmen
and labourers have recovered more r a p i d l y and permanently than has been the case with those confined t o t h e house (especially t h i s ) o r sedentarily engaged, with t h e exception of Bisson the Baker, Geo. Thorn and M r . Dunnet's son John.. ."5 M r . Dunnet's son John became t h e f i r s t f a t a l i t y recorded. He
had had s e v e r a l severe r e l a p s e s but seemed t o be recovering and was a b l e t o walk about a l i t t l e , with a serious a f f e c t i o n of "...when he was attacked i n the night
t h e head attended with a t o t a l loss o r
reason and constant convulsions which did not cease u n t i l l [ s i c ] h i s death on t h e f o u r t h day."6 a t all. Amongst t h e Gentlemen t h e Complaint weighed heavily. Five of The cases of Thorn and Bisson a r e not described
them were a f f e c t e d , a l l with s u f f i c i e n t s e v e r i t y that D r . Smith did not expect any of them t o recover f u l l y u n t i l they were removed from the Factory. The f i v e were Robert Miles, Chief Trader; J a m s Hargrave,
The York Factory Complaint
Chief Trader; and Messrs. John Ballenden, Butcher, and McKenzie.
M r . Miles had three relapses between 22 March and 26 May.
These
" l e f t h i s stomach i n a very disordered uncomfortable s t a t e [ , ] h i s arms very painful, and great nervous weakness. *l7 The cases of Hargrave
and Ballenden a r e of peculiar interest because both men remained a t York Factory f o r the following two seasons and both continued to suffer from the disease during the e n t i r e period. Butcher had apparently recovered from several relapses and from a painful s t i f f neck when, while out walking on 22 May, he f e l l down in a f i t . Smith reported t h a t "...every remedy t h a t I could devise
was put i n requisition, but it was not u n t i l Sunday morning a f t e r he had been 3 days and 2 nights i n a s t a t e of profound stupor having l o s t the power of speech and swallowing that there was any chance f o r h i s l i f e [ ; ] since that time he had been doing well, a relapse however i s to be feared[;] considering the severity of t h i s attack, and the previously attenuated and debilitated s t a t e of body h i s services (if he lives and do well) w i l l be of very l i t t l e use f o r 3 o r 4 months.
I need
not add the necessity of h i s removal and t o a place where there i s an experienced medical man."' Finally, McRenzie had no relapses that Smith could record but
he did note t h a t the patient had l o s t 70 lbs. i n weight and "had so l o s t the use of h i s arms that he could not put h i s hand t o h i s mouth."9 Smith's recommendation that Butcher be sent to the care of "an experienced medical man" He was not, however, seems an admission of h i s own inadequacy.
loth to make a diagnosis:
"...I
judge the W
complaint to be a species of colic accompanied with spasm and low inflammation and peculiarly modified by the s t a t e of the atmosphere, the vomiting and pain a r e more tormenting and confirmed than i s usual, and much more obstinate i n yielding to remedies that I have hitherto experienced. With regard to the relapses they have beenmany and unacwunt-
64
C. G. Roland
ably more alarming on account of the previous reduced s t a t e of body, and decidedly much aggravated by t h e excessive depression of s p i r i t s , which reign u n i v e r s a l l y here. ,910 B the 14th of July, Smith had returned t o Churchill, h i s p a t i e n t s y mending i f not mended. He had two suggestions. He pointed out t h a t
the supply of medicines and leeches there was q u i t e i n s u f f i c i e n t , and he s t a t e d that a medical man c e r t a i n l y should r e s i d e a t York Factory i n the future. Apparently a p r a c t i t i o n e r who had been expected from
Canada arrived, f o r on 30 July 1834 a medical c e r t i f i c a t e was signed a t York Factory by Dr. E. H. Whiffen.ll
I1
For the next 2 years Whiffen was t o be very much i n evidence, both a s a doctor and a s a p a t i e n t .
A medical journal kept by Whiffen
i s one of t h e chief sources of information about the e p i d w i c f o r i t s
mst d e v a s t a ~ i n gyear, 1834-35,12 the other document of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t
being the Post Journal. 1 3 The season 1834-35 began q u i e t l y enough i n t h e medical department. Many of t h e previous winter's p a t i e n t s had recovered. Those, such
as Ballenden and Hargrave, who were ultimately t o relapse, seemed t o be cured.14 Through t h e autumn, Whiffen saw some cases of diarrhea,
rheumatism, and i n f l a m t i o n of t h e l i v e r , a s well a s several i n j u r i e s (including a compound f r a c t u r e of t h e arm i n an Indian boy, who did we1.1~5). Then, i n December 1834, t h e ominous signs appeared. "...the disease from which t h e r e s i d e n t s suffer'd On the 15th,
so severely during
the Winter of '33 and the Spring of '34 again made i t s appearance..
.~ ~ 1 6
One case occurred in December, but i n t h e e a r l y p a r t of January t h e chief medical concern was scurvy, not even mentioned by Whiffen but described i n t h e Post Journal. Fortunately, t h e case were not severe The
and responded t o treatment (including t h e issue of spruce beer).
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65
Journal reported the post "perfectly healthy" on 18 January, but a t the end of the month Whiffen reported three slight cases of the Complaint, and from then u n t i l June it ran rampant. Twenty cases occurred. The one for whom
Some of these patients a r e of special interest.
w have the l e a s t evidence i n support of the diagnosis i s perhaps e particularly intriguing, and t h a t i s Orneatchuck's daughter. Journal s t a t e s , f o r 27 April 1835: Tent t h i s morning a t North River. The
Post
"Old Omeatchuck s e t out f o r h i s W learn that a Daughter of h i s e
has died l a t e l y of a disease very similar in i t s character t o t h a t which has f o r these l a s t two seasons borne so heavy upon t h i s Estahlishment ."l8 This was ill. is e n t i r e l y circumstantial evidence. Apparently neither
the surgeon nor anyone e l s e a t York Factory saw the g i r l while she The diagnosis cannot be confirmed but the matter i s of some
importance;
if she did have t h e disease she would be the only case
recorded in an Indian, and the only known instance of the disease affecting someone not i n residence a t t h e post. The case of Xavier Cardin, the under-storekeeper a t the Factory, i l l u s t r a t e s both the relapsing nature and the severity of the Complaint.
He was f i r s t taken ill 20 February 1835 with disease "of
a Severe
character."19
B mid-March he was noted t o be recovering, and a month y s t i l l on the sick l i s t , recovering, but not Then, on 8 June, Cardin
l a t e r he was "weakly",
likely t o be f i t for duty f o r some time." "...was
suddenly seized with a f i t of Epilepsy, and s t i l l remains i n
a s t a t e of insensibility,"21 from which he did not recover, dying on 10 June 1835." Both Ballenden and Bargrave, f i r s t stricken i n 1834, were again
ill i n 1835, and were t o face s t i l l more discomfort i n 1836.
Also,
Joseph Charles, William Thew, and Whiffen a l l continued to be ill off and on through the coming season.
66
C . G. Roland
Whiffen made a general statement of symptoms, which added l i t t l e to that made by Smith. "The Symptoms were Constipation, which i n many cases resisted for a time the most active Medicines; great i r r i t a b i l i t y of Stomach, Pain and Tenderness of Bowels, leaving the Patient in a 2 very reduced and debilitated s t a t e . w 3 The prevalence of the disease inevitably affected the efficiency of the post. For a period of some months there rarely was a period without someone off duty ill, and often several would he abed simultaneously. B the end of March, the reading of public prayers was y
discontinued t o provide more time convalescents to "take exercise for the benefit of t h e i r health."24 I1 1 Once again, a u t m brought respite.25 without incident. October and November passed
Meanwhile, news of the recurring epidemic had spread
throughout the broad empire of the Company, and opinions were not wanting to suggest causes. Francis Butcher wrote asking "...How do you account f o r that unfortunate deceaseIsic1 making it appearance again a t F i s it to be an annual v i s i t o r ? What can it proceed from perhaps something
in the climate f o r living in the same I believe that it always was,
or perhaps close confinement may perhaps have something t o do with
it as the Gentlemen of the Establishment appear to he always the greatest
sufferers, but it i s needless f o r m to speculate on i t s causes as e
I shall leave off as wise as I began i.e. i n ignorance ..."26
The men on the spot knew l i t t l e more than did Butcher, hut by December they might have answered one of his questions. as if the Complaint was t o become an annual v i s i t o r . laid low with a severe relapse, h i s i l l n e s s appearing a t t h i s place."28
It did look
Joseph Charles
had a relapse i n ~ecember'~ and by early January Dr. Whiffen has been
l'.
..exactly the
same as t h a t which during the two past seasons prevailed so generally And Dr. Smith, who two years before had been treating
The York Factory Complaint
67
the disease, wrote him expressing him regrets, having heard "that you was very unwell."-'
..?a
There were a t l e a s t four new patients t h i s season f o r Dr. Whiffen to t r e a t a s well a s he might be able, considering h i s own precarious s t a t e of health. And in addition to these cases, a t least s i x others
represented relapses of i l l n e s s contracted the preceding year (Charles, McTavish, Thew, and Whiffen) or two years previously (Ballenden and Hargrave)
.
these recurrent cases ended in death. Joseph Charles,
One of
who f i r s t became ill i n t h e l a t e spring of 1835, was "indisposed" off and on a f t e r t h a t u n t i l he had major relapse on 20 April 1836 'and, on 27 May,
"...expired a t
t h i s place
... from a severe attack of dyspepsia
...
--
the same disease which has prevailed here each spring since l834
notwithstanding the assiduous care and attention of Dr. Whiffen it increased while he grew more and more feeble, till a t length it proved fatal."30 B t h i s time the sufferings a t York Factory were beginning t o y affect i t s a c t i v i t i e s seriously. Governor t h a t the baker, were unfit f o r duty.
On 8 June, Hargrave reported t o the
assistant stonesmason and others
tinsmith,
Charles was dead, and Hargrave himself was
extremely ill. Ballenden was trying to manage while Hargrave was confined to bed, but l a t e r in the same month John Charles, whose nephew had died of the Complaint just a month before, came down from Oxford House t o take charge. Ballenden had prepared a dispatch t o Simpson outlining
the situation and describing the s t a t e of some of the most severely
ill.
Charles read t h i s l e t t e r and commented that the description
l'...
however painful i s but to Isicl f a i t h f u l l y drawn, and if upon such. a distressing Case I may be allowed t o give an opinion of the State of the Parties,
it i s rather Worse with Mr. Hargrave and the Doctor
he has represented it."32
68
C . G. Roland
Hw did these men get t o t h i s state? o
Hargrave f i r s t took ill just recovering
in izhe spring of 1834, when Dr. Smith found him "...only
from a very severe relapse never having perfectly recovered the use of h i s legs nor enjoyed many days of entire freedom from pain since his f i r s t attack.. In August of 1835 his second physician, D r . Whiffen,
said that his health had never been reinstated since h i s l a s t i l l n e s s and that he "suffered much fromDyspeptic Attacks [and] Bowel ~ r r i t a t i o n . " ~ ~ And in June of 1836 it was talcen f o r granted t h a t Hargrave would have to leave the post: "...the question then i s how i s their Places be
Supplied my Friend M r . Hargrave who i s too ill to write himself expresses a wish t o go t o Canada on leave of Absence for a Season..
.lt3
Dr. Whiffen went t o York Factory in June or July 1834.
B May y
1835 he had had the disease, was s t i l l i n "very delicate health," but believed he would be better by the end of I n January 1836
he was severely ill again, and continued unwell through the spring;
in June he was "...still
i n a very precarious s t a t e , much increased
by his zealous and anxious attention t o h i s professional duties a t a time when h i s health was quite unequal t o the task."37 He was invalided
to Red River, where seeming recovery was interrupted, i n mid-August, by
"
...a
tendency t o a return of the F i t s with confusion of mind, This i n 1839
trepidation of the Limbs and a l l but f a l l i n g to the ground..."38 unhappy s t a t e was destined t o harass Whiffen f o r some time;
Hargrave wrote t o Simpson appealing for the permission of the l a t t e r for Whiffen t o v i s i t England during the winter of 1839-40;
l'.
..Dr. Whiffen
I regret t o report has, ever since he suffered so much from disease
i n 1836, been always a i l i n g more or less...
'l3'
It i s d i f f i c u l t t o
escape the conclusion that t h i s unhappy man paid severely for h i s devotion to h i s medical duties (and f o r h i s constant exposure t o the sick, should the Complaint prove t o be contagious) during two arduous seasons a t York Factory.
The York Factory Complaint
69
With t h e evident impossibility of D r . Whiffen continuing h i s d u t i e s , a decision had t o be made about t h e provision of medical care a t t h e post. N one seems t o have questioned the necessity f o r such c a r e . o season might bring? Another medical man Be was William
W o knew w h a t t h e 1836-37 h
was appointed, t h e t h i r d t o p l a y a r o l e i n the epidemic.
Todd, a man who was f a m i l i a r with York Factory, previously having wintered there. Charles expressed h i s confidence that t h e appointment would
encourage t h e employees a t t h e post and would help "to lessen t h e Apprehension, of t h i s too frequent and Dreaded Visitation, each Successive Approach of Spring. ~ 4 0
As it happened, Todd did not spend the season there, but f o r t u n a t e l y
h i s services proved t o be unneeded.
Perhaps i r o n i c a l l y , Todd, whose
appointment had d i s p e l l e d so much anxiety a t York, was t h e l a s t person t h e r e t o s u f f e r from t h e York Factory Complaint. Less than a month
a f t e r expressing h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n a t Todd's a r r i v a l , Charles was forced t o report that Todd "has experienced a very severe Attack of t h e Factory Distemper t o such an Extent t h a t we were Apprehensive of h i s Mind being Affected o r t h a t i t would have had a f a t a l Termination
..."41
A month
l a t e r , Todd had had four a t t a c k s , and Charles believed it t o he "too plain" that if he stayed t h e r e he would not survive. a h e a l t h i e r clime. Todd l e f t f o r
With t h i s l a s t , n e a r l y f a t a l , blow t h e York Factory Complaint seems t o have disappeared. 1836-37 N cases were t o be recorded during t h e o But t h i s was, of course, not
season, o r any subsequent one.
known t o those a t York Factory, and both t h e mystery and t h e anxiety continued. Many had theories t o explain t h e disease. t o Hargrave, John Bell, writing
suggested t h a t a t York Factory "...there
i s something
i n the nature of t h e climate very unfavourable t o the c o n s t i t u t i o n s
70
C. G. Roland
of i t s inhabitants.
Your mode of living c h i e f l y upon Salted Provisions
may, perhaps, be one of t h e p r i n c i p a l causes of ill h e a l t h , t h e want
of vegetables and f r e s h Beef occasionally I am aware a r e much thought o f , although you have a l l the other necessary luxeries [ s i c ] a t a l l times t o conrmand... 1142 With a t l e a s t t h r e e deaths from t h e Complaint Cardin, and Charles
-
John Dunnett, daughter),
- (and a f o u r t h if one includes Omeatchuck's
and with Red River serving a s a convalescent ward f o r s e v e r a l of its trusted and responsible employees, t h e Hudson's disease, o r perhaps t h e s a l t provisions. study Bay Company was not content t o wonder if t h e climate a t York Factory was a cause of t h e They wished t o know t h e cause, so they appointed and dispatched an investigator t o conduct a s c i e n t i f i c
.
The report of W. Musgrove was submitted t o t h e Company i n 1837. 43 Musgrove's suspicions obviously were directed towards some s o r t of He found copper untensils in t h e kitchen except The water toxicologic explanation i n i t i a l l y , since a l l of h i s experimental work was in t h i s area. Chemical Analysis"
M
a b a i l e r used f o r b o i l i n g water, and t h a t water "on t h e most Minute showed no t r a c e of copper o r of lead.
was found t o be pure and wholesome.
He found no way whereby a mineral
poison might have been introduced, and upon close inquiry i n t o t h e symptoms he became "...Convinced of it being i n Many Respects d i f f e r e n t
from that which would be induced e i t h e r by Copper o r Lead." I f t h e Complaint was n e i t h e r copper poisoning nor lead poisoning, what was i t ? Musgrove did
M
f u r t h e r chemical s t u d i e s but he did make The predisposing cause, he suggested,
enquiries and he d i d have a theory.
was "the close Confinement of t h e Gentlemen in the Office" a t room temperature between 70 F and 80 F during t h e cold winter, f o r periods of 12 hours o r more. This confinement "...mist of Necessity a f t e r a Short Time produce a languid S t a t e of t h e System, with Loss of Tone
The York Factory Complaint
71
i n the Stomach, rendering it much more Susceptahle [ s i c ] of Impressions than when i n a healthy S t a t e , and of Necessity l e s s a b l e t o perform
i t s function."
I n t h e presence of t h i s predisposing cause, t h e immediate e x c i t i n g cause then becomes e f f e c t i v e which Food i s prepared..
-
namely,
"...the
imperfect Manner,
."
N one a t t h e Factory knew o
"... t h e Business
in
e i t h e r of Cooking o r of Baking, i n Consequence of which, food which with proper Management might be rendered both Nutritious and P a l a t a b l e
i s frequently S p o i l t . .
."
Bread i s badly made and o f t e n heavy and sour, From a l l t h i s ,
I t does not seem
and no vegetables were a v a i l a b l e during the winter. Musgrove implied, came t h e York Factory Complaint. a convincing t h e s i s , disease vanished.
hut i t s correctness became i r r e l e v a n t when t h e
What was t h e York Factory Complaint? o f a disorder f i r s t a f f e c t i n g theabdomen. nausea and vomiting.
The c l i n i c a l p i c t u r e i s
Colicoccurs,withconstipation,
I n a number
Headache and weakness were cormnon.
of p a t i e n t s t h e arms o r t h e legs were affected t o a degree t h a t i n some i n s t a n c e s resembles paralysis. Symptoms ameliorated and then The most severe
returned, o f t e n many times over a s long a s three years. manifestations included stupor, convulsions, and death.
Those a t York Factory and t h e i r correspondents made such of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Gentlemen were most severely attacked and recovered l e s s rapidly than t h e Servants. the most long-lasting both "gentlemen." This seems questionable.
It is t r u e t h a t
disease seemed t o a f f e c t Hargrave and Whiffen,
But amongst t h e 32 named p a t i e n t s , 10 or 11 only
were i n t h i s c l a s s ; t h a t i s a much higher proportion than existed on duty i n t h e p o s t , but 20 servants affected i s s t i l l a large number theory about a "predisposing Moreover, of t h e
and does l i t t l e t o support Musgrove's
cause" being too long confinement i n a hot room.
72
C. G. Roland
deaths one was a gentleman, Joseph Charles, but Xavier Cardin was a under-storekeeper, John Dunnet a servant's c h i l d and t h e (questionable) If t h e disease seemed t o a f f e c t gentlemen
fourth, an Indian g i r l .
m r e severely, perhaps t h i s suggests only a l e s s r e s i l i e n c e than t h a t of men accustomed t o d a i l y hard t o i l outdoors. Moreover, t h e seemingly
severer disease amongst t h e gentlemen could r e f l e c t a reporting b i a s ; the Company took good c a r e of a l l i t s employees, f o r t h e times, but
it would not be s u r p r i s i n g t h a t those on t h e spot would give much more
d e t a i l about the i l l n e s s , and be b e t t e r aware of t h e f u l l range of symptoms, i n a Chief Factor than i n an axeman. Cases of t h e disease arose i n a l l the months from December through August, inclusive, with most cases beginning i n A p r i l and May. The
autumn months of September, October, and November seemed a s a f e time, both f o r initial a t t a c k s and f o r relapses. The theory had been expressed
that no one acquired t h e disease who had not spent a t l e a s t one f u l l season a t the Factory, idea. The c l a s s i c Canadian, r e c u r r e n t , winter disease a t t h a t time was scurvy. To t h a t disease t h e York Factory Complaint bears l i t t l e Nor does t h e p a t t e r n of winter-recurring, incapacitating The but Dr. Todd's rapid onset disposes of that
resmblance.
bouts of disease f i t t h e broad category of infectious diseases.
p o s s i b i l i t y of poisoning occurred t o t h e medical men of the time, a s evidenced by t h e t e s t s t h a t Musgrove declared he had done i n 1837 a l l of them negative.
-
What t e s t s he did, o r how s e n s i t i v e they might
But he seems t o have t e s t e d only t h e drinking Musgrove's opinion t h a t t h e disorder he
have been, we do not h o w .
water f o r copper and lead.
heard about (he sawno cases himself) did not resemble m e t a l l i c poisoning should not be given undue weight, f o r m c h has been learned about toxicology since that time. Indeed, t h e symptomatology bears many resemblances t o t h a t described
The York Factory Complaint
73
i n 19th and 20th century t e x t s for saturnism or plumbism oning.44
- lead pois-
The characteristic c l i n i c a l pattern includes the t r i a d of Colic, the classic symptom, usually The typical lead palsy i s a
colic, palsy, and encephalopathy.
i s preceded by constipation, vomiting, and tenderness; the constipation i s severe and r e s i s t a n t t o treatment. often than the arms. t o be involved.
It
wrist drop but many other varieties occur, affecting the legs l e s s Chronically fatigued muscles a r e the most likely Osler note that Cerebral symptoms are numerous.
epilepsy i s not uncommon, and i n f i t s developing i n the adult the
possibility of lead poisoning should always be c o n ~ i d e r e d . " ~ ~ Other symptoms include anemia, neuritis, depression. loss of appetite, anxiety and
Relapses a r e common, even when there is no further exposure
to the causative conditions. 46 Certainly the patients a t York Factory had colic and stubborn constipation. Relapses were conrmon, and one might infer the presence
of anemia from Smith's description of the men looking l i k e ghosts on his a r r i v a l from Churchill. i s inferential. The evidence for t h e existence of palsies
Smith stated t h a t one patient had l o s t the use of
his a m and could not put h i s hand to h i s mouth; although t h i s description i s f a r from a c l a s s i c account of wrist-drop, nevertheless with t h a t
disorder it would be d i f f i c u l t t o feed oneself, so perhaps t h a t was
w h a t was intended.
h r g r a v e l o s t some of the use of h i s legs for a
substantial period of time. 47 Signs of encephalopathy were remarkably common, and form the major terminal picture in two of the three f a t a l i t i e s unequivocally associated with the Complaint
- John Dunnet
and Xavier Cardin
-
as well as i n
Butcher, who apparently survived the disease.
As with most human disease,
the signs in t h i s group of actual patients differ somewhat from the text-book descriptions, which a r e a writer's synopsis from h i s personal experience and reading. Few patients f i t any average exactly, a f a c t that Charles Dickens recognized clearly when he quoted an Irishwoman
74
C. G. Roland
to the effect that:
"Some of them gets lead-pisoned soon, and some l a t e r , and some, but not many, niver; and
of them gets lead-pisoned
' t i s a l l according t o the constitooshun, sur; and some constitooshuns i s strong and some i s weak. ,v48 There i s , then, sufficient congruence of signs and symptoms t o
pennit a presumptive diagnosis of the York Factory Complaint a s being a prolonged epidemic of lead poisoning, with a mortality r a t e approaching 10%. The question remains, how were Eargrave, and Whiffen, and the others, exposed t o t h i s dangerous element? And i n what chemical form? Occupational exposure to lead could affect miners, smelters, painters, plumbers, roofers, sculptors, pewter makers, shipbuilders, enamelers, and potters. Non-occupational sources of lead poisoning include cosmetics,
drinking water, use of lead-containing glazed dishes and glasses, certain beverages, and lead paints. 49 Few of the occupational sources a r e
likely for the inhabitants of York Factory, where the group affected ranged over several work categories and included both labourers and off ice workers. There i s insufficient evidence to permit speculation. According
to Musgrove, the drinking water did not contain copper or lead.
What
i s required i s evidence of the existence of lead-lined container for food or drink, o r of some process involving the handling or treatment of lead or lead-containing substances, that would have begun i n 1833
and ended in 1836 (or which would have fallen below a c r i t i c a l level by 18361, and which would be existent a t York Factory but not a t other Hudson's Bay Company posts, since there i s no evidence of the Complaint existing elsewhere a t t h i s time. The records are not particularly
helpful, although it i s intriguing t o note that i n 1834, i n conjunction with other paint supplies, there was imported into York Factory 28
pounds "hest powdered Black ~ e a d , "though t h i s may r e f e r only to ~ ~ graphite.
A sustained and exhaustive archeological survey of York
The York Factory Complaint
75
Factory has not yet been made; when it i s , possibly the f i n a l piece of t h i s puzzle w i l l be s e t into place.
Public Archives of Canada (hereafter PAC), microfilm copieo of Hudson's Bay Company Records, M 2 B239/G/91 [Reel BBC IM2591. G0 York Factory Correspondence Book 1833-34. Robert Miles t o Capt. Benjamin B e l l , 9 March 1834. (Hudson's Bay Company Archives, Public Archives of Manitoba.) P C M 2 D41126 [Reel HBC 3M541 Correspondence Inwards 1833-1835, A G0 pp 65-66: Edward Smith to Alexander Christie, 26 May 1834. P C M 2 B239?G/91. A G0 Miles t o John Lee Lewis, 16 April 1834.
P C M 2 D41126. A G0 Smith t o Christie 26 May 1834. The usually voluminous f i l e s of t h e BBC a r e scanty f o r York Factory f o r t h i s year. It seam a reasonable supposition t h a t one e f f e c t of the severe i l l n e s s , which affected the two chief officers of the company a t l e a s t a s m c h a s anyone else, was a diminution of t h e volume of written reports f o r these early months of 1834. See n.2. See n.2. Miles (1795-1870) joined the &¶C i n 1818. Simpson considered him a good clerk but uneducated and coneited: Simpson's Character (ed.), Budson's Bav Miscellany (Winnipeg, Book, i n G. W i l l * 1975), p. 195-6.
11. P C M 2 D4/126, p. 69. Whiffen's devotion t o h i s medical duties A G0 was exemplary, as w i l l become evident. But h i s moral character
came t o be questioned almost inrmediately a f t e r h i s a r r i v a l a t YF. I n August, Robert Miles wrote Whiffen: "In consequence of the c a l l which I have from Miss Eliza Waugh, out of her room, a f t e r which you came therefrom, and then l e f t me, I waited upon her and from t h e explanation I received as t o your conduct she desired t h a t you w i l l not again wait upon her and I have further
76
C. G. b l a n d
t o add t h a t I order it, and never wish t o look i n again upon, S i r , Your Obedt servt," Further, Miles sesf a copy of t h i s missive t o Governor George Simpson. (PAC M 2 D41126. p. 59( Whatever G0 the r i g h t s o r wrongs of t h i s s i t u a t i o n , it n s t have created enormous pressures w i t h i n such a small cormnity. B P C M 2 D4/102, [Reel E C 3M461. O f f i c i a l report t o t h e Governor A G0 and Committee in bndon. 1835. p. 12-13. PAC MG20 ~ 2 3 9 / a / 1 4 8 . [Reel HBC 1~11641. Yorlc Factory Post Journal 1834-5. Hargrave wrote t o b b e r t Logan on 10 Sept. 1834, "I am happy t o say t h a t my h e a l t h i s now completely restored, and have strong A hopes that no r e l a p s e w i l l t a k e place t h i s Season". P C MG20 041 127. [Reel HBC 311541 p. 140. Correspondence Inward 1833-35. See 11.14, p. 12. Whiffen must have had s u r g i c a l s k i l l , f o r t h i s injury was a challenge, even f a r from Europe's p e s t i l e n t hospitals. See n.12. See n.13. p. 31. See n.13. p. 49. See 0.12. See n.13. p. 47. 21. See n.15. p. 57. See 11-12.
22 h 23. 24. 25. 26.
See n.13. p. 45. PAC MG20 B239/G/92. Hargrave t o W. Smith 17 Sept. 1835. "...I am happy t o add that a l l t r a c e s of sickness have now disappeared." C.P. de T. Glazebrook, The Harmave Correspondence 1821-1843 (Toronto, 1938), p. 208. Francis Butcher, Fort Chipewyan, t o Hargrave 28 December 1835. P C M 2 B239/a/149. A G0 1835-6, p. 18. See n.27. p. 20. [Reel E C 1M1641. B Yorlc Factory Post Journal
27. 28.
The York Factory Complaint
77
29. 30.
P C MG19 A21. A &y 1836-
Hargrave Correspondence.
Smith t o Hargrave 15
P C M 2 ~ 2 3 9 1 ~ 1 9 2 .Hargrave t o John Charles 28 May 1836. Joseph A G0 Charles, who joined t h e company in 1838, was considered a superior clerk and trader, according t o Simpson "the most Steady and best conducted half breed I ever knew. ( W i l l h i m , Hudson's Bay Miscellany, p. 23.31.. P C M 2 B239/G/92. A G0 P C M 2 B239/G/92. A G0 Hargrave t o Simpson 8 June 1836. Charles t o Simpson 30 June 1836.
31. 32. 33.
P C M 2 Dr1126. p. 65-66. Smith to Christie 26 M y 1834. Wargrave A G0 a (1798-1865) was a r a r e recipient of Governor Simpson's almost unqualified approbation, a l t h o u g h k g r a v e f a i l e d to f u l f i l 1 Simpson's prediction of highest rank in the Company. Be did become Chief Factor in 1844. (Willhim, Hudson's Bay Miscellany. p. 214.) See 11.12. See 11.32. P C M 2 BW9lGI92. A G0 P C M 2 B239lG192. A G0 P C M 1 A21. P.1300. A G9 Hargrave to Cbristie 16 M y 1835. a Hargrave to Simpson 2 June 1836. Whiffen to [Eargrave?] 17 Angust 1836.
34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.
P C M 2 B239lG193. Report of the Bffairs of York Factory D i s t r i c t A G0 & Depot w i t h the Dependencies During Outfit 1839. 10 May 1839. P C M 2 ~239/G/92. Charles t o Simpson 29 July 1836. A G0 P C M 2 ~239/G/92. Charles t o Christie 24 August 1836. A G0 Glazebrook, John Bell t o Hargrave, 30 January 1837. p. 252-3. G0 P C M 2 ~23912126.p. 143. [ R e d HBC 1M9091. Notes of Enquiries A and Examinations made a t York Factory f o r the Purpose of Ascertaining the Probable Cause of the Colic prevalent there during the Winters 3314, 3415, 3516. Texts consulted include Austin F l i n t , A Treatise on the Principles and Practices of Medicine; Designed f o r the Use of Practitioners and Students of Medicine, 4th ed. (Philadelphia 1873); W i l l i a m O s l e r , The Principles and Practice of Medicine (Philadelphia,
40.
41. 42. 43.
44.
78
C. G. Roland
1892); and Donald Hunter, The Diseases of Occupations 6th ed. (bndon, 1978). 45. 46. 47. Osler, op. cit., p. 1010. See especially F l i n t , op. cit., p. 478. I n 1839, Hargrave wrote his fiancee that he considered himself in good health, "yet the effects of that horrible York sickness [have] not quite l e f t me," and as l a t e as 1847 he stated t h a t he s t i l l had "weak ankles (McLeod, Letters of L e t i t i a Hargrave, p. 279 & 290).
."
48. 49.
Charles Dickens, The Uncommercial Traveller (ed. Charles Dickens, Jr.; Nw York, MacMillan & Co., 1896), pp. 276-7. e
J. 0. Nriagu, Lead and Lead Poison& i n Antiquitv (Toronto, WileyInterscience Publications, 1983), p. 314ff. Dr. Nriagu has suggested to the author t h a t lead in wines were contaminated so commonly a t t h i s time. Both adults and children could also have ingested significant amounts of lead from using improperly glazed dishes and drinking vessels.
50.
P C M 2 B239/n/72. [Reel HBC IM8241. Indent 1833 f o r Importation A G0 1834, p. 69. There was a dark-coloured ore of lead referred t o by t h i s name, though the term could also r e f e r here t o the graphite material commonly used t o clean and polish stove grates. Acetate of lead also was imported into the post, as was Goulands extract of lead (B239/n/72 15. 79). Modern research can be suggestive of possible etiologies for lead poisoning too. Dickinson in t h e i r report on lead poisoning caused by cocktail glasses, remind us that lead formerly existed i n large amounts i n glass (American Journal of Medicine 52:391-394, 1972); Anderson noted plumbism caused by airborne lead in a f i r i n g range manufacture of lead bullets and f i r i n g of such bullets would be continuing events a t a l l posts in the early 19th century, although certainly t h e f i r i n g would he done outside, when airborne lead concentrations could hardly be a factor. (For the l a s t reference I a indebted to Dr. E. Neiboer, Department of Biochemistry, McMaster m University.)
Some of the research for t h i s paper was supported by grants from the Hannah I n s t i t u t e f o r the History of Medicine, Toronto, and from the JohnP. McGovernPoundation,Houston. ProfessorArthurRay,Department of History, University of British Columbia, f i r s t drew t o m attention y t h i s curious epidemic.