Higher Education
Demystifying Cultural Theories and Practices
Locating Black Immigrant Experiences in Teacher Education Research
Janet Tolulope Awokoya & Christine Clark
Introduction none of them comprehensively capture because of the connections that have de-
the intragroup differences and identity veloped between these youth and the false,
The number of immigrants of color
processes that affect Black immigrant highly destructive, socially constructed
residing in the United States reached 13.5
youth in social and educational settings. view of “Black American ‘culture.’” Thus,
million in March 2005, the highest in U.
This article will address this gap in it is of utmost importance to keep in mind
S. history (Camarota, 2005). By 2010 the
the literature in three ways: (1) it will the absolute falseness of this view of Black
number of Black immigrants and their
discuss the extent to which these three American culture in seeking effective solu-
children is estimated to reach five mil-
theories do contribute understanding of tions for improving the academic success of
lion, and will represent twelve percent of
the sociocultural experiences of Black im- all Black students (Black immigrant and
the Black population in the United States
migrant youth in U. S. schools; (2) it will Black American alike) in the United States
(Rong & Brown, 2001, 2002 a & b). To
identify and problematize the shortcom- (Perry et al., 2003).
date, the majority of Black immigrants in
ings in these three theories vis-à-vis Black
the United States are from Trinidad and
immigrant students; and, finally, (3) it will Problem Statement
Tobago, Grenada, Haiti, and Jamaica,
suggest possibilities for the advancement
but substantial numbers of immigrants Black immigrants are concentrating
of a more detailed and otherwise robust
also come from various African countries, in central cities throughout the United
theory that more adequately describes the
including Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and States. New York, Atlanta, Newark, Jersey
sociocultural experiences of Black immi-
South Africa (Rong & Brown, 2001, 2002 City, Detroit, and Houston have some of
grant youth and supports their educational
a & b). As a result of these demographic the largest numbers of Black immigrants,
development.
trends, educational researchers have who are diverse not only in terms of
It is important to note at the outset of
increased their focus on how Black im- national origin, but by ethnic affiliation,
this work that U. S.-based racism has im-
migrant youth fare once in the United cultural tradition, and generational status
bedded in the psyche of most people in the
States. This scholarly attention is varied, (Camarota, 2005; Foner, 2001; Rong &
world images and associated definitions
emanating from three primary conceptual Brown, 2001, 2002 a & b). As this popula-
of “Black American ‘culture’” that are, at
perspectives: Cultural Ecological Theory, tion continues to grow, its children have
once, not Black, not Black American, and
Culture-Centered Theory, and Critical begun to experience American schools in
not culture, much less anything akin to an
Race Theory. an array of uniquely challenging ways.
accurate depiction and/or description of all
Cultural Ecological Theory (CET) ex- While mainstream sociological theo-
that is the richness of what is truly Black
plores how culture, identity, and societal ries have striven to capture the social and
American culture, and the history from
forces impact the educational outcomes of economic experiences of these children
which it emerged and in relationship to
minority groups. Culture-Centered Theory (Portes & Zhou, 1993; Waters, 1999), very
which it continues to grow and develop in
(CCT) examines the use of students’ cul- little is known about their day to day expe-
myriad important ways.
tural backgrounds as a point of reference riences in academic settings, because stud-
The degree to which Black American
for preparing those students academically ies focusing on these types of experiences
culture (along with Black Americans them-
and socially. Critical Race Theory (CRT) often statistically group these children
selves) has been reduced to the inferior and
explores the sociopolitical consequences of with African-American children on the
violent imagery perpetuated by corporate
race in educational settings from a progres- basis of “race” and the data compiled is
mass culture in service to the almighty dol-
sive legal perspective. While these theories rarely disaggregated on the basis of any
lar is nothing short of genocidal, and yet,
are promising in providing insight into the other social identity dimension (Harry
through the utter resiliency of the Black
experiences of Black immigrant youth, & Klingner, 2006). The blanket grouping
American spirit, the true culture of Black
of these populations creates within both
Americans persists in profoundly robust
theoretical and practical challenges for
Janet Tolulope Awokoya is a doctoral candidate manne