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English AS / A level study skills
You are embarking on a course of study that will require a disciplined approach
if you are to be successful. You will need to work hard; you will also need to
„work smart‟! Learn to manage your time profitably and economically and you
will make a success of the AS or A level course. What is demanded?
Attendance - 100% expected: headaches and colds are unacceptable excuses.
Please do not arrange dental appointments or driving lessons to coincide with
English lessons.
Files – must be well organised if you are to be successful. File your materials in
separate sections for each text / area of study. They will be checked regularly.
Lesson preparation must be done properly. Intelligent, purposeful discussion
is impossible if you are looking at the text for the first time. Lesson preparation
may involve some or all of the following activities:
Pre-reading of texts / writing journals
Annotation of specified extracts / texts
Preparation of text and background material for presentations
Work sheets to complete on theme / character / style etc
Lessons: teaching approaches will vary:
Teacher led, content based lessons – very few of these.
Whole class discussion – no waiting to be asked to talk; it is
expected that everyone contributes to the debate. Failure to join
in suggests poor preparation and may result in you being asked to
leave the class.
Pair / small group work: often preceding class discussion and leading
to formal presentations or written work.
Student led lessons where you teach an aspect of the text to the class
and the teacher „mops up‟.
Group discussion and annotation of text
NB You will rarely be 'spoon-fed' notes to learn. English is more about acquiring
and developing critical skills. You need to be able to think and write clearly.
Reading: regular and wide reading is expected beyond the set texts and the
secondary, critical texts on them. The librarian will provide you with lists of
texts related/complementary to the texts studied; use her expertise. However,
you should also pursue your own interests.
Research: each unit has its own research needs which will be made clear to
you. Use resources intelligently and selectively. Resources include:
Books - including critical texts, biographies, related history texts. Read and
make very brief notes of useful ideas/opinions. Do not copy large chunks of
text which you may then be tempted to copy wholesale into essays: plagiarism
is a bad idea. The best library in the area is probably Cardiff Central Library
reference section, but the school library is excellent too; use it and the
librarian‟s expertise.
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Internet – you can obtain lists of useful web-sites in the library or from your
teacher. Beware wasting time „surfing‟. Be aware that anyone can paste
essays on the internet; make sure the work you read is from a reputable
source. Once you locate potentially useful material copy and paste into your
user area. Then you can edit it down and print. Do not print out pages of
pointless material that you will probably never read. Always read and edit
before you print. If you come across a new and useful web site please
inform your teacher and the librarian.
CD Rom – there are several useful ones in the department. See your teacher
or the librarian.
Keep an eye open for useful television history programmes which can
supplement your reading.
Essays:
Expect one a week
Meet deadlines set; you must negotiate any extensions to the original
deadline with your teacher before the essay is due in, not on the due date.
Attach the appropriate cover sheet to all essays, filled in fully, including
the comment before marking. Also include your essay planning: this is
often useful in helping the teacher to identify your problems.
After marking, fill in the comment box and return the cover sheet to be
photocopied for the records. Make brief notes on your essay of any useful
comments made on the cover sheet and of the grade band in which you are
working. Keep all your essays in your file for future reference.
Assessment for Learning
The department is committed to using this approach to assessing work at every
level. This means that you will self / peer mark all the work done before the
teacher sees it. This must be done thoroughly or it may be returned to you for re-
marking. Through this work, you will become familiar with the assessment
crtiteria. You will also be able to evaluate your own work accurately, knowing
what you need to do to improve; this build confidence.
Language skills: high level skills are needed for AS and A level:
Essays must be planned; plans must be attached to essays before submitting.
Your style and expression must be very clear. Spelling and punctuation must
be accurate. Formal Standard English is essential. You are expected to work
hard to improve and refine your language skills throughout the course.
You must learn and use the appropriate literary, critical and linguistic
terms. [see the glossary at the end of the handbook]
It is a good idea to get yourself a copy of Brewers Dictionary of Phrase and
Fable (or a similar, cheaper version published by Wordsworth)
A decent dictionary is an essential if you are an A level student – the large
Collins dictionary is the best affordable one.
Take pride in doing your work well. You have chosen to do A levels; do not
waste your time and your parents‟ money!
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How to organise your files
Logical organisation of your files is essential. Material should be filed in sections
divided clearly by coloured file dividers. The following categories are suggested:
A new vocabulary / grammar section.
A glossary of literary terms; add new terms as you encounter them. Include
examples from your texts for maximum benefit.
General advice including all handouts / book lists.
Textual work – to include all handouts, your notes, presentations, essays –
with assessment notes from the front covers including your own targets for
improvement. Record the title and author of critical texts which should be
cited when you refer to a critic's opinion in essays. Provide a separate
section for each text.
Critical analysis work – to include all advice sheets, photocopied texts, essays.
Wider reading – to include brief notes on all books / poems / plays [other
than set texts] read. This will enable you to make useful cross-references. A
half page should be enough to record impressions about characters, themes
and any connections you can see with exam texts.
Effective note taking
is a vital skill which you will be using daily until you finish your education, and
beyond. Photocopied notes are the teacher‟s notes, not yours. To make your own
notes from the notes given is good practice; it forces you to think about their
meaning; it also highlights immediately areas of difficulty you need to tackle.
You will be required to make your own notes. You obviously cannot write down
everything that is discussed in class; you will not take anything in and your
handwriting will be illegible. The essential point is to contribute to the
discussion and process the ideas under discussion through one‟s own brain. This
will ensure greater understanding. Talk and listen more: write less!
The next, essential, stage is done later the same day when you rewrite the
notes to ensure that they will be clear in six months time. This is an opportunity
also to expand a little on the key ideas which will still be relatively fresh. It may
also make you realise when you are unsure of a key idea and need to seek help.
The Practicalities:
Use A4 paper and space notes out - you may be able to cut down on the
rewriting stage by adding more detail later rather than rewriting everything.
Use headings and subheadings; try to be logical. Identify key ideas clearly.
Develop a consistent personal shorthand. E.g. could - cd; character - xter;
some - s; something - sthing; which - wh etc.
If you have to annotate texts write the minimum and keep it small.
It is advisable to reduce almost all the work you do during your course
to note form. You may not find time, at the end of the course, to read the
essays that you spend long hours on. Therefore, plan ahead and reduce these to
note form, capturing the vital ideas briefly. Retain your plans!
Whatever method you choose, you must reduce the revision material to a
manageable amount. This will stave off time stress and increase the likelihood
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of success. However, notes must be clear, legible and make sense if they are to
be useful. Anything else is a waste of time.
Preparation of texts
This is best done regularly as you work through the texts. Unless you do this
you will feel defeated by the workload at the end of the year which will result in
underachievement.
1 Keep a reading journal on your first reading of the text. See page 24 for
details.
2 Keep annotation of texts to a minimum to avoid distraction from the text.
Make more detailed notes on A4 separately. It is advisable to make all
your notes on A4 to start and transfer key notes in later to „open text‟
exam books.
3 At the end of a section, review new ideas / characteristics, highlight and
fix your ideas in note form.
4 When you finish a text ensure you have collected quotes for each of the
major characters and themes. Select 6 / 7 of the most useful (i.e. those
which offer opportunity for analysis). Enter only these 6 / 7 in the back of
your text with very brief simple notes alongside. Learn them if you will
not have access to your text in the exam and avoid annotation of these
texts. (E Lit 1 and E Lit 6)
NB Do not copy critics' comments or essay plans into your text; it
is forbidden by the exam board.
5 List the main recurring images used – list any examples of particularly
interesting imagery.
6 For poetry collections, as you study each poem decide on its main theme.
Then make a list of the most common themes; list each poem under the
relevant theme heading as you study. This will help you gain an overview
of the body of work.
7 Do the same thing for poetic techniques: list the main ones, then list the
poems in which you observe the technique.
8 Under each theme / technique heading select the three most important
poems. In this way you should be able to focus in on a smaller number of
the most important poems which you will need to know in great detail.
9 Work in a similar way on your drama texts remembering also that you
must consider the text as a drama for performance. You will, therefore,
need to look at stage directions, dramatic techniques, dialogue etc.
Writing skills : general advice
Remember that an examiner wants to be able to follow and understand your
argument on first reading so plan / write logically, with your reader in mind.
Use formal standard English in an academic essay; avoid slang.
Your spelling and punctuation must be accurate and sentence structure must
be varied .
Proof-read your work for careless errors and check that it reads fluently.
Use tentative language to show your awareness that a text is open to a
variety of interpretations. Eg. The writer may be suggesting / implying..
Aim to acquire a varied critical vocabulary; but ensure you use new terms
correctly.
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Use capital letters for titles and enclose them in double inverted commas or
underline them.
You will need to quote frequently in any literature essay. Set quotations out
properly as illustrated below:
Put a colon before a quotation. Set the quotation on a new line. For poetry,
set out the quotation in lines exactly as the poet does. Eg:
“Its platinum hoops shrink to a wedding ring
If you like,”
Enclose the words in quotation marks and start a new line when you
continue, as I have here. You may underline words you wish to highlight for
the reader. However, if your quotations are single words or phrases, you can
integrate them into your writing without interrupting the flow. Eg:
Duffy’s use of the words “lethal” and “knife” imply an ambiguous attitude
towards love. The suggestion is that there is something dangerous or
threatening about love once it leads to marriage.
[Refers to „Valentine‟ by Carol Ann Duffy.]
Writing effective essays
Answer the question set. No marks are given for irrelevant material.
Spend time preparing: reading, researching, gathering material, developing
ideas, talking to colleagues etc.
Plan your answer. How?
Brainstorm - spider diagram: begin to address the relevant AOs at this point.
Review the demands of the question and cut anything irrelevant. Aim to
write a focused, relevant essay; it is preferable to make a few points which
are well developed and illustrated than to cover lots of ground superficially.
Develop each idea / aspect of the essay, still in note form on the spidergram
Organise the material. It is vital that essays progress logically. Think of each
paragraph as a link in a chain - chains need to have secure links or the chain
[essay] falls apart. You can organise your material by numbering the points
and drawing lines to link ideas on your spidergram . Ultimately you have to
find a personal best method but this is a tried and tested one.
Writing the essay: a good A level essay usually requires you to argue a point.
If you‟ve planned this is relatively simple; without a plan you will be rambling
and incoherent. Introductions and conclusions need to be clear..
Introduction - state very clearly your approach to the topic and the scope of the
treatment. Make the reader want to read on; show you are in control by
addressing the question straight away. Don‟t waffle or state the obvious, e.g. “I
am going to discuss the first soliloquy in Hamlet.” when the essay title tells you
to do exactly that. A better opening to this essay might read: “Through the
dramatic device of the soliloquy Shakespeare reveals his character’s innermost
and most honest thoughts. The character is free to voice his opinions without fear
of misinterpretation; he has no need to dissemble. In the first soliloquy Hamlet
reveals his disturbed state of mind at the opening of the play...”
Do make an effort to sound interested, even enthusiastic about your
subject. Your reader will be an enthusiast; you will engage his attention and
respect as a student far more readily if you come across as an enthusiastic,
thoughtful student.
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The body of the essay should contain several well developed paragraphs
which link together smoothly allowing a logical and fluent progression through
the essay.
The conclusion must leave the reader with a strong impression. It should pull
the essay together without falling into the trap of simply repeating what has
already been said prefaced by “To sum up...” or “In conclusion...” An effective
conclusion will add something to the argument. You can do this in several ways:
Placing the material in a different perspective
Saving a good (new) point to the end
Indicating an area for further study / exploration
Leaving your reader with an interesting and pertinent question
Useful techniques for linking ideas in essays
A stylistic feature that marks out the stronger candidate is the fluency of his/her
work. Careful and thorough planning will enable you to concentrate on how you
write as well as what you write. An avid reader is likely to have acquired fluency
without effort. However, most students experience difficulties in this area
sometimes; perhaps the following tips may help:
If you need to illustrate a point use:
compared with
in the same way
equally
similarly
as well as
If you are contrasting ideas, use:
however
but
on the one hand,….on the other..
yet
although
If you want to persuade your reader, use:
Obviously
Of course
Clearly
Surely
Certainly
If you are giving an opinion, be tentative; use:
It would seem that
Possibly
Maybe
Perhaps
Useful words and phrases for conclusions include:
Finally
In conclusion
On the whole
In summary
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How long should your essay be? There is no hard and fast rule about length
or proportion in an essay but as a rule of thumb in a 1000 word essay the main
body should take up 700 - 800 words. Brief introductions and conclusions are
preferable to pedestrian, longwinded waffle / padding. Exam essays, of necessity
are concise and extremely selective. However, it is a good idea to write lengthier,
more detailed essays in preparation for exams to strengthen your textual
knowledge and to practise writing skills. Some timed practice is of course
essential in the run up to exams; your teacher will advise when to do this.
Tips for top A level students
Always write in paragraphs which will contain a topic sentence and several
others developing and enlarging on the ideas raised by the topic sentence. If
you are concerned your paragraphing is weak, try summarising the content
of each paragraph – you should be able to do this if you are doing a good job
of paragraphing.
A sentence must contain a subject and a main verb; it will then make
complete sense.
Learn to punctuate sentences properly.
Do not use a comma to separate sentences; it is wrong!
Learn to use colons and semi-colons to give your writing sophistication.
Colons introduce quotations or a list. You can also use them to separate two
sentences where the second sentence explains or contrasts with the first.
E.g. Bright students plan their essays: failing students don't plan.
The semi-colon is used when you want to establish a connection between two
sentences.
E.g. Hamlet is a reluctant avenger; he is a scholar, not a man of action.
Learn to use the apostrophe properly; it is easy.
1. Apostrophes indicate missing letters - don‟t, shan‟t, he‟ll, you‟re,
they‟re etc.
2. They are also used to indicate possession. A fail-safe method is to
ask the question Who is the owner? and put the apostrophe
immediately after the answer.
E.g. The dog‟s dinner, the students‟ work, the school‟s logo, the
children‟s uniform, Hardy's novels, the dinner ladies' rules.
3. Learn the difference between its and it's:
Its, meaning belonging to it, is a possessive pronoun like
hers, ours theirs and therefore needs no apostrophe.
It's always means it is.
Keep a personal spelling hit-list and work at your spelling. If it is a problem
it will not go away; you have to tackle it. It matters!
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Some approaches to analysis of text
The ability to reflect on and analyse language is central to success in A level
Literature. You will study a range of texts in all three genres and be expected to
reflect and analyse. In addition there is a synoptic element in E Lit 6 which will
require you to comment on a passage of unseen text. You will therefore need to
practise critical analysis of poetry and prose post 1770 for this paper. Such work
also supports the general development of your critical skills and is therefore
invaluable preparation for all your other units.
While each genre has its particular approach, they have one thing in common: in
the limited time assigned in the exam you will be unable to exhaust the
possibilities of the extract you are analysing, so you must develop the confidence
to select key ideas and important quotations and to omit less important aspects
of the text. This is equally true of textual work. The examiner is looking for a
clear structure and the sense that the student knows where he is going in an
essay – and gets there! Being in control of sound but simple ideas will get you a
C and is preferable to a disorganised essay trying, and failing, to tackle more
complex issues clearly. The ideal of course is to be in control and to handle
complex ideas intelligently, which will get you the highest grades. The examiner
is looking for a fresh personal response; independent opinions are particularly
valued. The „approaches‟ in the handbook are good starting points - checklists.
Your teacher will work with you and advise on further reading.
An Approach to Analysing Poetry
What aspects of the poem/s must be dealt with?
Subject / content – summarise briefly
Themes / issues raised
Form
Stanza pattern / line arrangement structure
Rhyme and rhythm
Language
Imagery style
Poetic technique
Use this checklist, but do not take a mechanical approach covering one aspect
per paragraph; you will write a repetitive, essay if you do. You will deal with
more than one element at a time as they are so inter-related and interwoven.
To start:
Read the poem several times on your own
Paired or group discussion is often the most profitable way forward.
It is often useful to begin by considering the structure of the poem/s and the
possible reasons for the poet‟s choices.
Annotate the poem/s as you work; question the text.
Highlight those features of the poem/s that interest or intrigue you. Try to
find patterns of language, image or structure.
Look for any progression evident in the poem.
Look at the title; how is it significant?
It is essential to get an overview of the poem/s before you begin writing your
response.
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An approach to the writing
Introduce your essay by summing up the subject of the poem/s very briefly. You
may wish to include a little relevant background detail. If the essay is for a
poetry exam then background detail will need to be integrated throughout the
essay.
Begin your analysis of the poem. There is no one right way to tackle this;
it will vary according to the poem. Work your way logically through the poem
focusing on important / significant words, ideas and images. Be selective. Avoid
plodding line by line through the poem, afraid to omit anything. Some lines will
need no explanation because their meaning is obvious; other parts of the poem
may be more complex or ambiguous and need detailed analysis / exploration.
Remember the possible significance of the poem‟s structure – it may underpin
the meaning in some way. For example, a poet may choose a very regular rhyme
or rhythm to echo some restriction of which he writes. Alternatively a poet may
choose free verse because he wants to suggest the unpredictable nature of his
subject matter. Language, image and structure all complement one another; do
not separate them artificially.
In responding to poetry it is vital that you support all your comments by close
reference to the poem/s. A useful pattern to keep in mind is:
Comment – quote to illustrate your remark – analyse words / image / ideas.
When you feel you have dealt thoroughly with the poem/s, stand back and re-
read the poem/s and the essay. If it is relevant to consider it, how does it relate
to the text you are studying for E Lit 6? Does anything else occur to you? Check
that you have not missed seeing the whole in concentrating on the detail.
You are now ready to write a conclusion in which you draw the threads of
your essay together. This may be where you show that you have an overview of
the text [and can show useful links with the set text for E Lit 6]. Do not repeat
yourself: instead you may deliberately save an interesting idea or question or
personal reaction to finish on. Do not pad out your conclusion with meaningless
flattery or pointless repetition.
Use the full and accurate essay title to establish clearly the parameters of
your essay. This title is typical, though the poem is shorter than you would
usually expect. Beginning with a close critical analysis of the poem below,
show how the mood created here compares to ….[the set text for E Lit 6]
The following essay deals only with the analysis of the poem; it is beneficial to
practise close analysis of text before moving to the more demanding comparison.
Discord in Childhood by DH Lawrence
Outside the house an ash tree hung in terrible whips,
And at night, when the wind rose, the lash of the tree
Shrieked and slashed the wind, as a ship‟s
Weird rigging in a storm shrieks hideously.
Within the house two voices arose, a slender slash
Whistling she-delirious rage, and the dreadful sound
Of a male thong booming and bruising, until it had drowned
The other voice in a silence of blood, „neath the noise of the ash.
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Annotate the poem carefully, then use the framework below to help you
write a response to the poem. You can develop it further as you wish. Do not
be limited by the framework; it is designed to help you start your analysis.
The poem depicts …………[outline the content or „story‟ of the poem]
The ………. tone of the title suggests ……. whereas the mood of the poem itself
seems ……….
The poem is divided up into two stanzas which ………. The regular four line
stanza structure suggests ………. But ……….
The language of the first stanza is ……….
The image of the ash tree hanging “terrible whips” implies …… It makes me
feel ……. ……….. it sounds as if ……….
The image of the “ship‟s weird rigging” is particularly effective because …….
The metaphor is evocative leading the reader to connect ………..
Through ……… the poet explores ……. Furthermore he ……..
To conclude „Discord in Childhood‟ deals with / compares / evokes …….
Now compare your essay with the model answer printed below: use the
matrix to annotate the essay with what you consider to be its A grade qualities.
Discord in Childhood : critical analysis
„Discord in Childhood‟ depicts a vivid scene of brutality where a child‟s
father cruelly beats the mother into „silence‟. The detached, matter of fact tone of
the title suggests the child accepts such events as normal, albeit unpleasant
occurrences. Lawrence‟s use of regular four line stanzas reinforces this
impression. The bed time story most children listen to is replaced by real life
horror, within the home, for this unfortunate infant.
The poem is divided into two stanzas which separate the outside from the
inside of the house. The stormy weather reflects the violence and tension inside.
The personified „ash-tree‟ might be a metaphor for the child‟s father since the
physical qualities of the tree – large, solid, strong and enduring – are those we
expect to find in a father figure. The grey bark of the tree points towards an
oppressive character who may be going grey himself as he gets older. „Ash‟ is
also negative because of its association with death and it provides a subtle hint
towards the „blood‟ of the end:
“an ash-tree hung its terrible whips,”
The image of the tree holding whips is frightening because it is unnatural; it
sounds like a horror story where a static object comes to life. The branches of a
tree extend and separate out like the edges of a whip. “Whips” sounds fast, short
and masculine like the whip itself.
The action of the whip beating someone is sounded by the repetition of the
„sh‟ sound:
“the lash of the tree
Shrieked and slashed the wind …….”
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The frustration of the father is evident because the wind is insubstantial and
therefore unsatisfactory. The „sh‟ sound of the whipping seems sinister and
secretive. The “lash” suggests verbal as well as physical “lashing out”.
The “lash” hints at waves beating forcefully against each other:
“as a ship‟s
Weird rigging in a storm shrieks hideously.”
The image of the ship in a heavy storm is particularly effective in evoking panic
and desperation. The “rigging” continues the theme of masochistic devices. If the
ship represents the mother and the wind her voice there is a sense that her cries
will determine her fate as the wind directs a boat. The awkwardness of the
masculine – feminine rhyme “tree / hideously” highlights the latter word and
suggests the instability of the ship.
The second stanza switches to inside the house but the parallelism is
instantly clear through the echo of previous diction. “Two voices arose a slender
lash,” reminds us of the line “the wind rose, the lash of the tree”. The noise and
violent action outside clearly continues inside. The “lash whistling she-delirious
rage,” could belong to the storm as well as the mother. The madness of the rage
is emphasised by the jumble of words. “delirious” suggests violent excitement.
There are sexual overtones in the whipping action that hint at sado-masochism:
“the dreadful sound
Of a male thong booming and bruising ….”
The alliteration, strong open vowels and use of the present tense make
this a powerful image. It hints at rape with the suggestion that the thong is
„male‟. The earlier shrieking, rocking to and fro of the ship and the bruising also
imply a harsh sexual act or, at least, male domination. The enjambment points
towards the length of the violent act. The poem has to be read slowly so the pain
is drawn out. The commas imply a break when the whip is lifted and the woman
is able to breathe.
Lawrence ties up the themes of the ship, the ash and the parents at the
end:
“until it had drowned
The other voice in a silence of blood, „neath the noise of the ash”.
There is a mixture of relief and alarm in this statement. The whipping is finally
over and the „silence‟ hints at peace. However, the voice has „drowned‟ and this
implies the ship, or the woman is dead. The „blood‟ suggests the woman has been
beaten to a pulp and now lies at the foot of the “ash” or father. The picture of a
body lying under a tree is reminiscent of Blake‟s “A Poison Tree” where
repressed anger leads to death. The tree in “Discord in Childhood” will also be
poisoned if it is fed by blood. The father seems to be poisoned by repressed
emotions.
Lawrence succeeds in conveying a disturbing childhood experience mainly
through the description of sounds. There is a continuous repetition of the „lash‟
sound such as “ash” and “slash” which resemble the steady beats of the whip.
They contrast with the different vowel sounds of the „shriek‟ to create noise. The
reader therefore „sees‟ through the child‟s eyes – they hear only what the child
hears when in bed. The filmic technique of focusing from the outside of the
house inwards gives us the sensation of peering in on something we are not
meant to see – like an inquisitive child. This is effective in heightening our deep
aversion to such violence.
Sarah Dawkins Year 12
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An approach to analysing a Drama extract.
The first question on E Lit 1 is an extract question on the Shakespeare text you
are studying. Read the extract once quickly to establish the scene as a whole in
your mind. Re-read and try to „see‟ and „hear‟ it in your imagination; it is a
performance text. Clothe the characters; set the scene; imagine the lighting and
any sound effects indicated by the stage directions.
The question is likely to ask you about:
Characters' attitudes and relationships and how they are presented.
Mood / atmosphere / tension and how they are created.
How successful the extract is as a beginning or end to a play.
How do you begin to order your ideas?
Question the text! Do not plod through the scene picking out obvious features.
Ask questions that will lead you into productive ideas about the text. Annotate
the text: the following points may help.
What is revealed about the characters and their attitudes?
What is revealed about their relationships?
Are the characters “rounded”, giving an impression of complex, real people?
Or are they “flat”, cartoon like in their simplicity? Such characters do not
develop.
What do you learn from the characters‟ language? Explore their style;
sentence patterns, diction, pace, tone, status relationships.
Who has the longer speeches?
What do stage directions suggest / reveal? Look out for:
sudden entrances / exits
looks
pauses / hesitations
tone of voice
manner of delivery etc.
What can you discover from the staging?
Who is on first / longest?
Who is front stage all of the time?
Who is on the stairs / higher than the other characters?
What does the characters‟ relative positions on the stage reveal
about their status relationship?
Remember the nature of drama is essentially different from prose or poetry. In
drama:
The focus is on the spoken word: on performance.
Gesture, movement, costume, set, lighting, special effects, all contribute to
the dramatic impact.
The written script is merely the skeleton: you have to imagine the „flesh‟ the
director and actors will put on it.
There is a relationship with the audience, which may have certain
expectations.
There is no drama without conflict.
If you do your “fair share of the work”(Shaw) you will appreciate the playwright‟s
craft and you will be able to deconstruct the scene‟s elements and write a
successful essay. Remember the importance of being selective.
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Use the extract and the space around it for both annotation and planning. Make
sure your answer clearly reveals that you have an overview of the text and that
you are focussed on the question asked. Below is a typical extract question on
„King Lear‟
Through close analysis of the language, imagery and structure of the
extract below, discuss the presentation of Edmund at the beginning of
Act 1 Scene ii lines 1-21.
Enter EDMUND, with a letter
EDMUND
Thou, nature, art my goddess; to thy law
My services are bound. Wherefore should I
Stand in the plague of custom, and permit
The curiosity of nations to deprive me,
For that I am some twelve or fourteen moon-shines
Lag of a brother? Why bastard? wherefore base?
When my dimensions are as well compact,
My mind as generous, and my shape as true,
As honest madam's issue? Why brand they us
With base? with baseness? bastardy? base, base?
Who, in the lusty stealth of nature, take
More composition and fierce quality
Than doth, within a dull, stale, tired bed,
Go to the creating a whole tribe of fops,
Got 'tween asleep and wake? Well, then,
Legitimate Edgar, I must have your land:
Our father's love is to the bastard Edmund
As to the legitimate: fine word,--legitimate!
Well, my legitimate, if this letter speed,
And my invention thrive, Edmund the base
Shall top the legitimate. I grow; I prosper:
Now, gods, stand up for bastards!
Before you read the model answer printed on the next page, .work in
pairs to annotate the text and write your own answer. Then, again in
pairs, annotate the model answer using the matrix for E Lit 1,
identifying the good qualities of the essay. Write a comment on the
essay's good features and identify any areas for improvement. (This
response was written by a year 12 student in November; it was done as a
homework, not under exam conditions.)
13
Shakespeare introduces the audience to Edmund and presents him as a villain
using the soliloquy to provide a truthful insight into Edmund‟s feelings and
motives.
Shakespeare uses enjambement throughout Edmund‟s soliloquy:
“Wherefore should I
Stand in the plague of custom.”
This technique can either be interpreted as a sign of passion in a character or of
confusion. The notion that Edmund is a confused character is further supported
by the heavily punctuated sentence structure, especially the repeated use of the
question mark,
“Why bastard? Wherefore base?”
I believe that Shakespeare has invented Edmund as a character symbolising
conflict between society and nature, “Thou, nature, art my goddess;” despite the
fact that pagan gods are called upon by the other characters in Edmund‟s
society, only he calls upon nature, separating him from the rest of society.
Furthermore, he does not respect the laws of his society, referring to “the plague
of custom”. In Shakespeare‟s time customs went hand in hand with order. For
Edmund to announce his wishes to disrupt this order portrays him as a villain to
the Elizabethan audience.
Edmund appears to directly deride the audience in his reference to “the curiosity
of nations”. This device creates a feeling of opposition between Edmund and the
audience, between nature and society, between order and disorder.
The lexis based on conception relates to Edmund‟s questioning of the moral
beliefs of society. In “the lusty stealth of nature”, he describes his father and
mother‟s relationship as natural compared to the “dull, stale, tired bed” in which
Edgar was conceived. Here he may be questioning the sexual relationships
between married couples. Such statements would have been in great conflict
with the audience‟s beliefs at the time, portraying Edmund as a strong-willed
villain.
However, just as there is metaphorical conflict between nature and society,
there is conflict in the presentation of Edmund. Shakespeare illustrates that
Edmund feels injustice using the repetition of:
“With base? with baseness?, bastardy? base, base?”
perhaps this is designed to echo Edmund‟s tormentors. As a bastard in his
society, Edmund would have been derided. The onomatopoeic adjective “base”
could also suggest a low sound connected with the meaning of the word,
suggesting something low and vile.
Edmund‟s desire to cause disorder is clearly demonstrated:
“Edmund the base
shall top the legitimate.”
This is perhaps a play on words relating to the chain of being, often pictured as
a ladder where height is proportionate to power. If Edmund breaks the chain in
this suggested role reversal, disorder in society is a guaranteed outcome. I
believe that Edmund is Shakespeare‟s metaphor for order versus disorder and
nature versus society
Sam Webb
14
Use the same process with the next extract which is from a later point in the play. The essay
following was also written as a homework quite early on in year 12.
Through close analysis of the language, imagery and structure of the extract below,
discuss the presentation of King Lear at this point in the play.
(Act 1 Scene iv, lines 279-295.)
KING LEAR
What, fifty of my followers at a clap!
Within a fortnight!
ALBANY
What's the matter, sir?
KING LEAR
I'll tell thee.[To Goneril] Life and death! I am ashamed
That thou hast power to shake my manhood thus;
That these hot tears, which break from me perforce,
Should make thee worth them. Blasts and fogs upon thee!
The untented woundings of a father's curse
Pierce every sense about thee! Old fond eyes,
Beweep this cause again, I'll pluck ye out,
And cast you, with the waters that you lose,
To temper clay. Yea, it is come to this?
Let is be so: yet have I left a daughter,
Who, I am sure, is kind and comfortable:
When she shall hear this of thee, with her nails
She'll flay thy wolvish visage. Thou shalt find
That I'll resume the shape which thou dost think
I have cast off for ever: thou shalt,
I warrant thee.
Exeunt KING LEAR, KENT, and Attendants
15
The extract appears in the play after King Lear‟s eldest daughter Goneril, complains about
the King‟s extensive and excessive entourage and treats him with increasing hostility and
rudeness. King Lear is astounded by the discourtesy shown by his daughter and her stewards
and decides to argue back against the daughter who swore her love for him.
The extract begins with Lear shouting two exclamations,
„Fifty of my followers at a clap!
Within a fortnight!‟
This start to the extract shows Lear‟s disbelief at what is going on and his passionate side is
once again beginning to show. The lines are heavily punctuated which can be interpreted as
emphasizing his passion and fury or showing a loss of control at this point as the events start
to overwhelm his mind.
Albany is blind to the situation and cannot interpret what the King is upset about,
„what‟s the matter, sir?‟ This reinforces a sense of isolation for Lear as he feels he is the only
one who understands his problems; everyone around him is naïve to them or doesn‟t seem to
pay any attention.
Lear still uses the power and command of a king, despite having given his kingship away,
„I‟ll tell thee‟. This shows Lear‟s poor judgment of his own situation, as he can no longer
wield such power as he once did. This makes the insolence of Goneril even harder to bear.
Lear states that he is „ashamed‟. This could be seen as referring to his daughter‟s coldness or
he could be ashamed of his own poor judge of character and his mistake in banishing
Cordelia and giving her sisters the land. King Lear cannot believe the power Goneril, his
own daughter, has over him, reinforcing Lear‟s vulnerability and weakness at this part of the
play. Lear‟s weakness is emphasized when he tells Albany that he has cried, „these hot tears‟.
Kings should not cry in public, especially in front of dukes, as this would be regarded as a
show of weakness. This perhaps shows the audience that Lear is certainly no longer King or
in no state to regain his throne, despite what Lear prophesises: „thou shalt find that I‟ll
resume the shape‟. This illustrates Lear‟s naivety to the situation and shows the audience
how far he has fallen.
Lear threatens his daughter with a curse, „the untented woundings of a father curse‟.
This word „woundings‟ reflects the pain and suffering Lear is feeling, but his fiery spirit is
still alive as he is determined not to let his daughter succeed in her evil plans. The theme of
blindness is portrayed here when Lear claims he will pluck his eyes out, „old fond eyes‟, „I‟ll
pluck ye out‟. This claim foreshadows the plucking out of Gloucester‟s eyes in the presence
of Goneril and also reflects Lear‟s own blindness to his daughter‟s machinations. Lear is also
ashamed to be crying in front of his daughter, showing his former bravery still prevails
slightly, but his mind is overcome with pain and grief.
The torment in Lear‟s mind is reflected in his language, „yea, is it come to this?‟ The
breakdown in Lear‟s language symbolises the breakdown of his mind. Lear‟s vulnerability is
reinforced when he states, „yet have I left a daughter‟. This dramatic irony makes Lear seem
foolish to the audience but also provokes sympathy and compassion for the king.
Lear states that his daughter is a beast, „flay thy wolvish visage‟. This unnatural image is
one of many that run throughout King Lear‟s speech such as plucking one‟s eyes out. King
Lear feels he represents a natural man who is battling against all things unnatural, despite
being the antagonist of the whole series of unnatural events to occur, as he broke the chain of
being. In fact it is Lear‟s madness that is natural and caused by events round him such as the
coldness of Goneril.
Lear‟s speech is uncontrolled throughout, showing no structure or ideas behind it.
Enjambment is used frequently, „thou dost think/ I have cast off forever‟, reflecting Lear‟s
rash personality and showing his lack of control and the loss of his politic attitude. In his
uncontrolled speech, the audience see the beginning of the breakdown of Lear‟s mind.
Ashley Davies
16
An approach to analysis of a prose extract.
Read the question carefully. Highlight the key words in the question. Read the
extract several times, underlining interesting lines / words / images as you go.
Focus on close analysis of the extract in your first readings. Then you need to
look at possible comparisons with the text being studied for E Lit 6; making
three or four well developed comparisons should ensure you meet the demands
of AO2. You need to consider the following:
Characters / relationships.
Society and how the characters fit (or do not fit) into that
society.
Language - the way the writer creates the mood and
atmosphere of the piece.
Links with the text studied for E Lit 6
Note that none of these questions focuses on narrative. This is an opportunity to
show your skills at analysing character and language. Retelling story is a low
level skill.
Some features to consider:
Narrative viewpoint: the „voice‟ of the extract.
Tone. 1st person – personal, intimate, informal.
3rd person – detached, cold, informal.
Setting.
Period.
Characters – A – actions
B – behaviour
C – conversation
Style – literary / poetic techniques.
Imagery – look for recurring images.
Tensions / conflicts / contrasts.
Remember that comments about any of these features of the text must be
supported by specific reference to the text, which may be followed by analysis of
language / image /ideas. Annotate the text, keeping the question firmly in mind.
Plan your essay on the white space around the text. Use the essay question or
questions to help you structure a clear and logical response. Supporting your
ideas / comments with brief and apt quotation from the text is vital. Follow
quotation with analysis – of language or ideas – wherever possible.
Be selective, choosing key ideas. Do not be afraid to omit ideas – you
cannot cover everything. Equally, make sure your essay does not deal with only
one or two ideas which you pad out endlessly. Make several well developed
points; use lots of quotations; include plenty of detailed analysis. Ensure you
draw three to five clear, well developed comparisons with the E Lit 6 text
studied. Finally offer a personal response and reasons for that response which
are firmly bedded in the text.
17
Below is an unseen prose extract question such as you might be presented with
on the synoptic paper E Lit 6. Attempt the question allowing yourself no more
than two hours in all. You have approximately one and a quarter hours for this
question in the E Lit 6 exam. However, there will also be opportunities for you to
practise critical analysis of prose in the E Lit 2 or E Lit 3 exams.
Beginning with a close analysis of the extract below which is from the
opening chapter of ‘Moby Dick’ by Herman Melville, compare Ishmael’s
outlook on life with Faustus’.
Chapter 1: Loomings
Call me Ishmael! Some years ago – never mind how long precisely – having little
or no money in my purse, and nothing particular to interest me on shore, I
thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part of the world. It is a
way I have of driving off the spleen, and regulating the circulation. Whenever I
find myself growing grim about the mouth; whenever it is a damp, drizzly
November in my soul; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing before coffin
warehouses, and bringing up the rear of every funeral I meet; and especially
whenever my hypos get such an upper hand of me, that it requires a strong
moral principle to prevent me from deliberately stepping into the street and
methodically knocking people‟s hats off – then, I account it high time to get to
see as soon as I can. This is my substitute for pistol and ball. With a
philosophical flourish Cato throws himself upon his sword; I quietly take it to
the ship. There is nothing surprising in this. If they but knew it, almost all men
in their degree, some time or other, cherish very nearly the same feelings
towards the ocean with me.
There now is your insular city of the Manhattoes, belted round by
wharves as Indian isles by coral reefs – commerce surrounds it with her surf.
Right and left, the streets take you waterward. Its extreme downtown is the
Battery, where that noble mole is washed by waves, and cooled by breezes,
which a few hours previous were out of sight of land. Look at the crowds of water
gazers there.
Circumambulate the city of a dreamy Sabbath afternoon. Go from
Corlears Hook to Coenties Slip, and from thence by Whitehall, northward. What
do you see? – Posted like silent sentinels all around the town, stand thousands
upon thousands of mortal men fixed in ocean reveries. Some leaning against the
spiles; some seated upon the pier heads; some looking over the bulwarks of ships
from China; some high aloft in the rigging, as if striving to get a still better
seaward peep. But these are all landsmen; of week days pent up in lath and
plaster – tied to counters, nailed to benches, clinched to desks. How then is this?
Are the green fields gone? What do they hear?
But look! Here come more crowds, pacing straight for the water, and
seemingly bound for a dive. Strange! Nothing will content them but the
extremest limit of the land; loitering under the shady lee of yonder warehouses
will not suffice. No. they must get just as nigh the water as they possibly can
without falling in. And there they stand – miles of them – leagues. Inlanders all,
they come from lanes and alleys, streets and avenues – north, east, south, and
18
west. Yet here they all unite. Tell me, does the magnetic virtue in the needles of
the compasses of all those ships attract them thither?
Once more. Say, you are in the country; in some high land of lakes. Take
almost any path you please, and ten to one it carries you down in a dale, and
leaves you there by a pool in the stream. There is magic in it. Let the most
absent minded of men be plunged in his deepest reveries – stand that man on
his legs, set his feet a-going, and he will infallibly lead you to water, if water
there be in all that region. Should you ever be athirst in the great American
desert, try this experiment, if your caravan happens to be supplied with a
metaphysical professor. Yes, as everyone knows, meditation and water are
wedded forever.
Herman Melville
Use this space to plan your response before reading the sample essay on the next
page. Remember that this is you opportunity to show you can analyse language
effectively; the comparison element is worth only a quarter of the marks so give it
only a quarter of your time and attention. When you mark the model answer,
check whether the answer contains sufficient analysis (AO3) and does not contain
too much comparison (AO2)
19
The title of the opening chapter of Melville‟s „Moby Dick‟, „Loomings‟ and the
opening sentence of the chapter “Call me Ishmael.” Are immediately reminiscent
of Marlowe‟s tragic Dr Faustus. The word „Loomings‟ is ominous and suggests
unease and restlessness, essentially the qualities that initiate Faustus seeking
solace in the “wondrous necromantic books.” The first sentence, “Call me
Ishmael,” is very focused and to the point and could be construed as being highly
egocentric as Ishmael, like Faustus, is eager to establish himself as the
protagonist of the plot. However, I advance that this opening is in fact more
conspiratorial and confiding than egocentric: you feel that Ishmael is a man of
experience rather than the raging intellectual arrogance that we witness in
Faustus, “some years ago, never mind how long precisely”, who is able to
educate the reader by means of the telling of his tale, whilst successfully
avoiding the patronisingly didactic tone that Faustus often employs. The
language used is poetic, lyrical and heavily punctuated, “ there now is your
insular city of the Manhattoes, belted round by wharves as Indian isles by coral
reefs – commerce surrounds it with her surf,” thus aiding the idea of the telling
of a mythical and informing story. The syntax is also similar to that of many of
Faustus‟ soliloquies, though the effect is rather different: Faustus‟ desperation is
expressed in his lengthy, all encompassing reflections whereas Ishmael guides
us with genuine ease, through a carousel of imagery which we are encouraged to
consider by means of cleverly placed punctuation – “where the noble mole is
washed by waves, cooled by breezes……”
Melville creates a very respectful tone in this passage: we are aware of
Ishmael‟s unaffected intellect – dismissively describing a “philosophical flourish”
and “metaphysical professor” and illustrating a global knowledge and awareness
through references to a world without frontier; “Manhattoes”, “Indian isles” and
“Corlear‟s Hook”. This is very similar to Faustus‟ intellectual prowess, and his
descriptions of “strange and distant” lands. However, one feels that Faustus‟
discourse is more calculated than Ishmael‟s: “Faustus seems only to make
reference to his knowledge of the world to impress and inspire admiration”
states Elizabeth M Goldstone. Perhaps Faustus also describes much of the world
to show that he has conquered all that this globe holds, thus endorsing his
decision to turn to “magical necromancy” and devilish dealings.
Overall, Ishmael seems far more peaceful and secure than the malcontent
Faustus. Ishmael, like Faustus, has known restlessness and longing, an
emptiness nagging and “looming”; but he has successfully addressed it. He has
experimented with the wonders of the natural world and has not found them
wanting, finding “magic” in the pools, streams and immeasurable oceans –
appreciating that “meditation and water are wedded forever”. Ishmael, includes
rhetorical questions throughout the passage “How then is this? Are the green
fields gone? What do they hear?” thus encouraging the reader to consider as
well: he is clearly optimistic that the “magic” and “meditation” of the waters can
also be found by the reader. Faustus, by comparison, is far more reckless and
intense, dismissing all earthly pleasures, for deadly and dangerous bargaining
with Lucifer. Faustus finds little happiness in the futility of existence, offering,
therefore, no optimistic encouragement for his audience. Faustus – the extremist
- is far more prepared to risk all, yet engages little of his learning and intellect
in his decisions. Ishmael, by comparison, seems far more measured and
temperate, knowing the need for something more and finding it in the natural
world – knowing better than to bargain with Satan.
Kate Jenkins Year 13
20
How to write a reading journal / log
Your response to a text will, eventually, be a multi layered one. It is essential, therefore, that
you record your impressions of character / theme / language at every stage of study,
especially during your early readings of the text. Active reading of the text will always lead
to a deeper and more perceptive understanding of it. Reading journal activities include:
Making brief chapter summaries.
Predicting, at key moments, how you imagine the text will develop and your reasons
Collecting impressions of the major characters at least four/five times throughout the
text. This will enable you to see character development more clearly.
Recording your ideas about the themes of the text as they emerge.
Picking out any characteristic language features. Look at: lexis, sentence and paragraph
structure, level/type of description.
Recording changes in mood/atmosphere and how the writer achieves them.
I‟d advise developing your ideas in each of the above areas on separate pages of your file
to enable you to track your own developing understanding. Happy reading!
Studying a Novel for A level
After your first reading of a text and keeping a reading journal, you are ready for serious
study. Review your knowledge and understanding of the plot and characters.
In order to be able to deal in detail with important aspects of the text you need to look
closely at several extracts and analyse them in the following way:
a) Briefly state what the passage is about.
b) Search for an opposition or tension within the passage.
c) Analyse the details of the passage, possibly relating them to the opposition
already observed.
d) How does the passage relate to the novel as a whole?
e) Look for anything distinctive about the passage, particularly in the area of
style that has been overlooked in the previous stages.
1. Look at the opening page or two and analyse, using the above method. If this does
not reveal much of interest look at another passage fairly near the beginning featuring
one or more of the characters.
2. Choose at least three or four more passages and analyse them in the same way.
3. REVIEW: by now do you have a sufficiently detailed and complex sense of the
novel? If not analyse another passage or two.
You should by now have a good general view of the novel. To strengthen your knowledge
and understanding you should now concentrate on some aspects of the novel; what you
choose to look at should develop out of what you‟ve already discovered.
21
The five areas that you need to consider in order to be well prepared are:
Character
Society
The author’s attitude / moral view
Language
Structure
If you look closely at a few passages, dealing with one aspect at a time, your understanding
of what makes the book you are studying unique and different from all other novels should
be enhanced and you should be able to cope with almost any examination question set.
Furthermore your essay answers are going to show your interpretation of the novel which
will now be firmly based on the evidence of the text. Students who achieve A grades work to
develop a personal reading of the text that is informed by other readings but not dictated by
them.
This is a very brief summary of some of the points raised by UC Cardiff lecturer John Peck
in his book „How to Study a Novel‟. We have a copy in the library, I recommend you read it.
You will now be ready to look at what the critics say. As a general rule start with the most up
to date general discussion of the author‟s work. Remember, reading the critics is a
complement to your thinking, not a substitute for it. Examiners are impressed by wider
reading but not by slavish repetition of other people‟s ideas. Test your own ideas against
those of the critics you come across in your wider reading and practise responding to those
ideas in your essays. This is one of the skills required to address AO4: plurality. You can
attain a plural reading in more than one way: firstly you can respond to a critical comment,
supporting it with ideas of your own or challenging those ideas, using textual evidence to
support your argument. However, good close textual analysis of text is, by its very nature,
tackling plurality as you explore the range of possible meanings of a word, a phrase, an
image.
It is good practice to collect useful, brief quotes from the critics you read and use them to
devise your own exam questions which you can then use in your exam preparation.
22
Planning and writing an essay
Seamus Heaney : “There is a problematic relationship between beauty and violence in
Heaney‟s poems” (Pikoulis). Discuss – refer to three poems.
This is a typical title. First you must identify the key words in the title and use them to
prepare a brief but useful plan something like the example below.
INTRO HISTORY
Heaney – an Irishman. Distance lends enchantment
Ireland a land of contrasts. Bog poems – violent deaths.
Beautiful landscape & violent conflict. Yet now strange perfection –
Has conflicting attitudes – as R.C. he Tollund Man
understands Sectarian violence. As a
poet (Punishment) he cannot condone
it – builds a tension in his work.
CROPPIES BOG QUESTION
Violence expressed Strange and wonderful blend
through strong BEAUTY / of beautiful language expressing
maudlin rhythms VIOLENCE his fascination with what must
and regular rhyme. Problematic have been a violent end.
Violence is justified. Relationship. Sinister – „body – braille -
Heaney identifies groping‟. Images are dark,
With Croppies – we natural but threatening –
moved, we found. brain – spawn – bruised -
Final „fatal conclave‟ berries. Physical quality of
has an eerie beauty language expresses the
„Hillside blushed‟ – beauty violence – battered, stripped.
of language asserts violently sinister images. She
that most violent action cannot rises mysteriously and the
prevent nature‟s beauty. reader is left with stark „hacked
bone‟ yet hopeful „small gleams.‟
MID TERM
BREAK
Beauty and innocence of death of child
and his young brother‟s love for him.
Horror of sudden violent death –
suddenly introduced at the end.
CONCLUSION
Violence and beauty are often linked – sometimes in a morbid way – the fascination with
slashed throat, but it is also a dark elderberry place. Sometimes in a questioning way –Mid
Term Break. The pathos of Punishment with the hapless young beauty – highlights the
futility of the kind of sectarian violence Ireland saw in the 1960‟s. Croppies places violence
in a historical context and, as in Tollund Man, Heaney presents us with a kind of
reconciliation. Present beauty of Tollund Man and the continuing growth of nature‟s crops
in Requiem seem to justify / excuse violent action. Can it ever be justified?
23
Model essay (extract)
Seamus Heaney : “There is a problematic relationship between beauty and violence in
Heaney‟s poems” (Pikoulis). Discuss – refer to at least three poems in your answer.
Your introduction should clarify both for you and your reader what
you understand by the title.
E.g. Ireland has long been a troubled country. It is a land of
contrasts, beautiful, gentle landscapes and violent sectarian
conflicts. As an Irish Catholic, Heaney shows us he understands
the sectarian violence, he may even feel he has condoned it when
General he “stood dumb” (Punishment) as girls were punished for
but consorting with British soldiers. As a poet, however, he is appalled
relevant. by the violence and by his own silence on the matter. Publicly he
shows a sense of “civilised outrage”: privately he understands fully
Sums up the “tribal intimate revenge.” It is this tension in his work which
title? perhaps prompted Pikoulis‟ comment.
In the Bog Poems Heaney celebrates the strange perfection of
Some the bog bodies seen first in photographs. His diction continually
background. reminds us that these bodies are enormously valuable:
“Trove of the turfcutters‟
Straight to Honeycombed workings” (Tollund Man)
detail. suggests both treasure and a sweetness which is at odds with one‟s
idea of a body so old. Despite his sacrificial death the Tollund Man
is presented as perfectly at peace . The precise, alliterative phrases:
Language. “his peat brown head,
The mild pods of his eye-lids
Sound His pointed skin cap.”
analysis. suggest a neat shape, a body which is now part of nature. The
image of him as “Bridegroom to the Goddess” reinforces this. The
Imagery intimate sexual imagery suggests strongly that this man has yielded
to the bog but in doing so has somehow been sacrificed:
“Those dark juices working
Him to a saint‟s kept body,”
The mystery and power of the bog is suggested by “dark,” but the.
word “juices” is vital and alive. Perhaps Heaney sees that over time,
even brutal events can be placed in some kind of perspective. “The
Tolland man” encourages this theory as the second part of the poem
deals with murders in modern day Ireland, brutal ugly deaths:
“ ambushed
Sound links Flesh of labourers”
with the soft sh sound in these lines makes the killings seem harsher. The
meaning. sharper t and ck sounds in
“Tell tale skin and teeth
Flecking the sleepers”
seem to suggest a fastidious rejection of this violence. Perhaps
Heaney feels that in the future the violence of these victims‟ death
will in some way seem to be made right? The final section of the
Structure poem projects the poet and the reader into a future where Heaney
Comments. imagines his reaction on visiting “the old man-killing parishes.” The
first two stanzas in this section comprise one sentence; the lines run
on, even over the stanza break to reflect a kind of solemn ritual
journey – a kind of pilgrimage? Heaney seems to identify with and
understand the feelings of the victims about to die:
24
“I will feel lost,
Unhappy and at home.”
The poem ends on a telling note. He will feel “at home” perhaps
because of the violence in his country?
Structure While the neat pattern of the poem suggests Heaney is
sums up. presenting it as a solution of sorts, there is an underlying unease*
reflected in the use of oxymoron. The Tollund Man‟s freedom is “sad
Technical freedom”; a parish is a homely concept at odds with the adjective
Point. “man killing.”
In the later Bog poems this unease* has developed into a more
Link* focused fascination with the bodies themselves. Frequently his
descriptions are intimate as he identifies with these bodies:
“I lay waiting”
“My body was braille
for the creeping influences;”
Focus on The imagery is very physical with enjambment suggesting an
selected inevitable decaying of even a Bog Queen‟s body. She is “groped”
words. and “digested.” Her brain is described as:
“a jar of spawn
Quotes set fermenting underground
out properly.
dreams of Baltic amber.”
The run on from stanza to stanza suggests a downward movement, a
Another reducing of her vitality. The image is a strange and paradoxical one.
link Spawn is alive, growing. In contrast amber is ages old resin; the
modifier „Baltic‟ suggesting a remote iciness in contrast to the heat
of “fermenting.”
* * *
Notice how I‟ve selected so that I can comment on a range of poetic
effects and techniques. I‟ve written about 1/3 of the essay here.
HOW TO END? See below –
1st mention In these poems violence and beauty are often linked; the Grauballe
of title – once Man‟s “slashed throat” is a stark, horrific image but this wound is
only also a “dark elderberry place” which has overtones of fertile
richness. In “Mid Term Break” he yokes the violent death of the four year
old with the beauty of the child‟s dead body in a way that
Brief ref. to seems questioning of a world where such futile death can occur. The
the poems gentle, resigned tone of “The Tollund Man” seems to offer hope that
Essay structure history will finally offer some kind of reconciliation. My personal
End where view is that, deeply disturbed by the violence he sees, Heaney is
you began. trying to reconcile his own ambivalent attitude. I think he carries a
Personal personal feeling of guilt and responsibility.
response to
finish.
This is the kind of essay expected of you during the course. Under examination conditions,
however, you would be wise to limit yourself to the minimum number of poems required
by the exam question . You have to be highly selective, and realistic about what you can
achieve in a limited time – five or six well developed paragraphs. Build a clear argument and
support it with plenty of detail from the text – C-Q-A.
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Exams - Getting it Right
How to revise
1. Read your texts several times. Engage in active reading which involves:-
Summarising chapters / scenes / action of poem etc. (Time lines if relevant).
Character studies with useful quotes to illustrate
Themes / issues - diagrams to show their occurrence and useful quotes to
illustrate [quotes must be accurate]
Select key points, search for clues of importance and significance as you read
Style and structure – some personal response – what do critics say?
Revise/summarise the contextual/background material you have researched.
Diagrams are helpful:
they help you to eliminate redundancy from your thinking
they help you discriminate accurately between the salient and the merely
peripheral
you can classify and group ideas in a meaningful way
they help to clarify relationships
2. Using past examination essay titles, make spider plans (A3 size is ideal )
and write introductory and concluding paragraphs for as many essay
questions as possible. What quotes would you need for each essay? Include
them on the spider plan. Make them brief and learn them. Address the
relevant AOs in your planning.
If you do this you will have adequate notes and you will have an intimate
knowledge of the text. You will need to research some contextual detail – best
acquired by „reading around‟ and making brief notes in your own words. York
Notes etc. offer basic background material. There is much useful material on the
'net' but select carefully and from reputable sources.
3. Read the critics – but only note anything that is new / different – such
reading will inform your work. If you quote from a critic, acknowledge it by
enclosing their words in quotation marks and /or citing their name if you can.
It is acceptable to paraphrase critics‟ ideas but not to pass them off as your
own! What do you think? Respond to the critics: do not simply repeat
their ideas and do not be afraid to challenge as well as agree with
them.
Do all this and you will feel organised and in control!
How much time should I spend revising?
For AS you will need to spend 6-7 weeks. The final 10-12 weeks of the two year
course should be spent revising. In either case spend 3/4 of the revision period
reading, sorting notes and learning, then spend the final 1/4 of your allotted
revision time practising, planning and writing answers.
Break your revision down into manageable chunks. Make sure you
allocate time equally to all aspects of the course. Don‟t avoid the text you‟re least
interested in and spend too much time on what you like. Build in treats - time
off doing something you enjoy.
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Are you a nervous examinee?
Train yourself to start an answer - you can do this using any exam question.
Start with a blank sheet of paper and give yourself 10 minutes to plan an
answer and write an introductory paragraph. Keep doing this until you have
developed the habit of planning. This will help panicky examinees: if you train
yourself in this way you will be calm by the time the essay is under way
and it will be organised and clear.
Planning a Question
Take your time to underline the key words and check the key verbs. Look out for
anything that is ambiguous. As you plan make regular checks to ensure you‟re
still on track and answering the question set.
How much time should planning take? Up to 20% of the time
allocated to the question! You cannot afford not to plan. Unplanned answers
are usually too long, incoherent and badly organised. You save time by planning
and write clearer more well structured responses that will gain you higher
marks.
What if I mess up the timing?
Immediately you realise your timing is out, stop and think
could I manage a basic answer for all questions?
can I quickly finish the question I am working on?
could I be more concise?
whatever you decide spend some time planning your answer
N.B. You must always answer the number of questions asked for. It will
always be easier to gain some marks for a new answer, even a short one, than to
squeeze a few additional marks out of an answer which is already reasonable.
Presentation
Imagine a tired, old, grumpy examiner on his 50th exam script. He/she needs
help to fully appreciate the elegance of your argument. Therefore use:
legible handwriting (not necessarily beautiful!)
clear, accurate sentences
separate paragraphs for each new idea
Focus your attention on quality of response rather than quantity. Length is
not a virtue in itself. A good answer containing all that the question demands
can be concise. However, it can be useful to leave a gap of several lines between
exam answers / sections so that when you read through your answers you can
insert any points which may occur to you later - good planning is flexible enough
to allow this.
Exam Tips
Don‟t waste time writing out the question or repeating it in your first
sentence - simply identify it using the correct question number.
English exams test your capacity for arguing a case clearly much more than
they test straightforward memory.
Use the relevant matrix to clarify what gains you marks. Make sure you
make enough points; many candidates keep recycling the same point using
different words! You can only get credit for an idea once.
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Answering the Question
These are some of the most common verbs used in essay style questions:
Analyse: Break up into parts; investigate
Compare: Look for similarities and differences between; perhaps reach a
conclusion about which is preferable
Contrast: Bring out the differences between
Define: Set down the meaning of a word or phrase
Describe: give a detailed account of
Discuss: Investigate or examine by argument; sift and debate; give reasons for
and against; also examine the implications
Distinguish between: Indicate the differences between
Evaluate: Give your judgement about the merit of theories or opinions; back
your judgement by a discussion of evidence or reasoning involved
Examine: Look closely into
Explain: Make plain; interpret and account for; give reasons for
Explore: Examine thoroughly, consider from a variety of viewpoints
Interpret: Make clear and explicit; show the meaning of
Justify: Show adequate grounds for decisions and conclusions; answer the main
objections likely to be made to them
Outline: Give the main features or general principles of a subject, omitting
minor details and emphasising structure and interrelations
Relate: Show how things are connected to each other, and to what extent they
are alike or affect each other
State: Present in brief, clear form
Summarise: Give a concise account of the chief points of a matter omitting
details and examples
Trace: Follow the development or history of a topic from some point of origin.
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A glossary of useful literary terms
Alliteration repetition of consonant sounds at the beginnings of words.
Allusion a reference to something real or fictitious outside the work of
literature. A classical allusion is a reference to Greek or Roman characters or
events. Brewer’s Dictionary of Phrase or Fable is useful for looking up these
references. [Wordsworth publishers do a cheap version which I recommend.]
Anticlimax a disappointing collapse when the anticipated excitement is
replaced by something mild or comically inappropriate.
Antithesis a balance of opposite statements in a line of poetry or in a couplet
“With mirth in funeral and with dirge in marriage” [Hamlet]
Apostrophe when a person [or personification] is addressed directly “Busy old
fool, unruly sun” [Donne]
Archaism an out of date word methinks, sirrah, lea, o’er, thou, morn etc
Assonance repetition of vowel sounds “Methought I saw my late espoused
saint” [Milton]
Aubade a morning song, usually relating to the awakening of lovers.
Ballad an old form of narrative verse which has a regular form and often
contains a refrain.
Blank verse a sequence of unrhymed iambic pentameter lines
Caesura a natural pause occurring within a line.
Cliché expressions that have become stale through over use.
Climax the peak of a play in terms of action and emotional intensity; the
scene or moment when matters may be resolved one way or another.
Comedy a type of drama where the tone is light hearted and the ending
happy.
Conceit an intricate or clever metaphor – often developed at length, - which
tends to surprise or amuse the reader. Many Elizabethan sonnets were based on
conceits. See Shakespeare‟s “My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun” or
Donne‟s “The Flea”
Consonance repetition of the same consonant sound in words that are close to
each other eg bleak / black; track / trick.
Couplet two lines that rhyme
Denouement the part of a play or novel, towards the end where all becomes
clear and the complications of the plot are sorted out.
Diction choice of words and phrases used by a writer.
Dramatic irony is when some of the characters in a scene are unaware of the
deeper significance of what is being said and done. It can be used to either tragic
or comic effect.
Elegy a lyric poem which commemorates the dead; it may convey deep
personal emotion. See Gray‟s Elegy in a Country Churchyard
Elision the omission of a letter for rhythmic effect o’er, ne’er.
Enjambment the effect of continuity when one line runs on into the next
uninterrupted by any punctuation; can create a sense of freedom or abundance.
Epic a long narrative poem dealing with events on a grand scale with a hero
whose qualities place him above the average human. Milton‟s Paradise Lost;
Homer‟s Iliad.
Epigram a concise, witty statement.
Epitaph an inscription carved on a tombstone.
Exposition a section at the start of a play or novel where the writer acquaints
his audience of the prevailing situation – the story so far.
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Farce a form of comedy where everything is carried to extremes for comic
effect.
Free verse poetry which does not use traditional rhyme or rhythm patterns
Form in poetry this can refer to a] the type of composition such as a ballad,
epic, lyric; or b] the structure of the verse, the stanza pattern, the rhythm, the
rhyme.
Half rhyme when the consonants following the main vowel rhyme but the
vowels themselves do not rhyme: grope / cup, drunkard / conquered.
Humours a theory of importance in Elizabethan drama. It was believed that a
person‟s temperament was governed by the different proportions of his body
fluids comprising the four humours of blood, phlegm, choler and melancholy. A
person‟s physiology and personality were closely linked and a preponderance of
one humour gave rise to a particular „type‟
Hyperbole poetic exaggeration used to convey intense emotion, not intended to
be taken literally: All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand
Macbeth
Iambic pentameter one of the most common metres in English poetry, the
line has five feet / units and each foot has one unstressed and one stressed
syllable eg invent.
By day / the bat / is cous/in to / the mouse [Roethke The Bat]
Imagery a picture made out of words. It need not necessarily be metaphorical.
It usually appeals to the senses.
Internal rhyme where the rhyme occurs elsewhere than at ends of lines;
sometimes a word in the middle of a line may rhyme with a word at the end of a
line.
Inversion the reversal of the normally expected word order, commonly used to
create emphasis or a particular effect.
Irony when what is said is understood to mean the opposite
Kenning a compound word or phrase used by Old English poets to identify an
object without naming it directly: whale-road for the sea, hate-bite for a wound;
ring-giver for a king.
Lay a song or medieval tale of love and adventure
Lyric originally a poem to be sung to a lyre; now a short poem expressing a
mood or a feeling, characterised by its light rhythmical structure
Masculine / feminine rhyme in a masculine rhyme the accent or stress is
always on the final syllable [support / distort or breath / death] whereas in
feminine rhyme the accented syllable is followed by one or more unaccented ones
[burning / turning or attitude / latitude]
Meiosis understatement, opposite of hyperbole
Metaphor like a simile it involves a comparison of two unlike elements but it
omits the linking word like or as which makes the comparison more compressed
and intense
Metre rhythm patterns
Mixed metaphor two or more metaphors combined or juxtaposed sometimes
with ludicrous results as in Pyramus‟ These lily brows, / This cherry nose, /
These yellow cowslip cheeks.[Midsummer Night‟s Dream]
Mood the atmosphere created in a text, as opposed to the tone which is the
writer‟s attitude to his subject.
Octave a unit of eight lines
Ode originally a song in honour of gods and heroes; now a formal, ceremonious
lyric, characterised by strong passion
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Onomatopoeia the use of words the sounds of which imitate what they describe
buzz, drip, click, clash, clatter etc.
Oxymoron the joining of words with apparently opposing meanings - bitter-sweet; “ a
terrible beauty is born” [Yeats]
Paradox a statement which at first seems to be self-contradictory but which on closer
inspection turns out to have a valid meaning: "Beware the fury of a patient man"
Dryden.
Parody a humorous imitation of a serious piece of writing
Pastoral verse poetry dealing with country life in a romantic, non-realistic way;
shepherds and shepherdesses feature prominently
Pathetic fallacy when a writer ascribes to natural objects the feelings of human
beings: the cruel, crawling foam [Kingsley] Also used when a writer uses the elements
or the landscape in a way which makes them appear to sympathise with characters‟
moods and actions.
Poetic diction used in two ways a] artificial and ornate language used by poets in the
eighteenth century against which later poets protested and b] the imaginative and
impassioned language of poetry. To distinguish between the two refer to the former as
„artificial poetic diction‟.
Quatrain a stanza of four lines, most commonly used in ballads.
Quintain / quintet a five line stanza
Refrain a phrase or line, often with small variations, repeated at intervals.
Sestet a six line unit of verse.
Simile a figure of speech making explicit comparison between two apparently unlike
things; the words like or as introduce a simile.
Soliloquy a speech spoken by a character who is alone on stage. It is akin to thinking
aloud and can be used to reveal a character‟s real feelings which may be concealed from
the other characters in the drama.
Sonnet a lyric poem of 14 lines with a rigid metrical and structural pattern. Italian /
Petrarchan sonnets divide into an octave and sestet; English / Shakespearian sonnets
divide into three quatrains and a couplet.
Stream of consciousness any writing which tries to capture the mind's natural and
often random flow of ideas and associations. See the work of Virginia Woolf or James
Joyce.
Surrealism a 20th century movement emphasising the unconscious, the dream-like, the
absurd.
Symbolism where an object is used to represent an idea; in the theatre props such as
crowns or thrones can be potent symbols of power / authority.
Synesthesia when an image mingles two or more senses using one sense to describe
another: silken tones, sweet songs
Syntax the ordering of words into a verbal pattern – grammar.
Tercet a three line unit of poetry
Tone the poet‟s attitude towards his subject, possibly humorous, satirical, sentimental,
cynical, bitter, serious, reverent etc
Tragedy drama where the emphasis is on serious events and themes which result in
an unhappy ending involving death and doom.
Triplet / tercet a verse unit of three lines.
Unities the three unities were observed in the plays of ancient Greece. The first was
of time – the drama took place during one day; the second was of place – the events
being confined to one setting; and the third was of action – there was concentration on
one plot.
Villanelle a poem divided into five tercets and a final four line stanza which uses only
two rhymes. See „Do Not Go Gently into That Good Night’ by Dylan Thomas.
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Useful linguistic terms
Familiarity with linguistic terminology will sharpen up your analysis and enable
you to express your ideas with greater clarity and accuracy. You should use the
following terms freely in your work.
Word classes
Nouns: a noun is a word referring to a person, place or object
A proper noun names places or people and has a capital letter. eg Italy,
John.
Common nouns name objects or things eg table, book.
Concrete nouns refer to things which can be touched or sensed. eg dog
screech.
Abstract nouns refer to qualities and ideas. eg anger, safety, youth.
Collective nouns are singular in form but refer to a group of people or
things. eg family, herd, flock.
A noun phrase is a group of words which acts like a noun in a sentence eg
the large black dog wagged its tail. He is a complete fool.
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun in a sentence
Interrogative pronouns are those used in a question: who what which etc
Possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers. ours, theirs and its.
Reflexive pronouns are the 'self' words: myself, yourself, himself etc
Relative pronouns are those which follow the noun they describe. Eg are
you the man who tried to steal my car.
Verbs are action words: hit, run, fall. However, they can also indicate a state of
existence: was, became, or an occurrence: happen, develop. Some terms you need
to use with reference to verbs are:
Tense which indicates the time at which the action of a verb takes place.
NB most verbs form their past tense using ed. Those that change a vowel instead
are called strong verbs. Eg run/ran, swim/swam, dig/dug.
Mood indicates the verb's 'attitude' or 'viewpoint'.
The imperative mood is used for commands or requests. Eg shut the door.
Please listen.
The interrogative mood is used for asking questions eg Was the match
good? Did you like the meal?
The subjunctive mood expresses a wish, a doubt or some other non factual
statement. Eg "It was suggested that we install a vending machine"; "If I
were you I would have nothing to do with it."
The voice of a verb shows how the subject is related to the action in a sentence.
It can be active or passive.
In active voice, the subject of the verb performs the action, eg Mary kicked
her brother - Mary, the subject of the sentence, is doing the kicking.
In passive voice, the subject receives the action, eg Mary was kicked by her
brother. This is passive because Mary is the recipient of the kick.
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An auxiliary verb is used alongside another verb and forms its tense, mood or
voice. eg. They are living abroad now; she wished that she could leave; the city
was destroyed.
Transitive verbs act directly on an object. Eg. The boy broke the window.
An Intransitive verb does not need a direct object to complete its meaning. Eg.
Snow fell yesterday.
Adjectives add information about a noun.
A pre-modifying adjective occurs before the noun, eg. The brown dog
barked.
A post-modifying adjective occurs after the noun, eg.The dog that barked
was brown.
Compound adjectives are composed of more than one word, eg. The well-
dressed banker.
Comparatives and Superlatives
The comparative form of the adjective is usually formed by adding -er on to the
end of the adjective, eg. Greater, harder, fairer.
The superlative form of the adjective is usually formed by adding -est on to the
end of the adjective, eg. Greatest, hardest, fairest
Exceptions to this rule include: good - better - best; bad - worse - worst; far -
farther - farthest.
Comparatives and superlatives which cannot be formed as one word are formed
with 'more' or 'most', eg more terrible [not terribler] ; most impressive [not
impressivest]
Adverbs and adverbials add information about a verb.
Adverbs perform three functions:
Describing the action of a verb, usually formed by adding -ly on to the end
of an adjective. Eg The day passed peacefully; she spoke too loudly.
Acting as an intensifier which adds emphasis to a verb. Eg It was very
interesting; the weather was extremely cold; I am so bad at football.
Acting as a sentence connector, eg Anyhow, that's what happened;
furthermore, your conduct was disgraceful.
Adverbials perform the same function as an adverb but are formed of more
than one word. Eg. We ran as fast as we possibly could; he drew in the style of
Picasso; in the middle of the conversation, she walked out.
Determiners are used in front of nouns to indicate either the number of the
noun or how definite it is.
The definite article - the
The indefinite article - a or an
Numbers - one, three, or first, tenth etc
Possessive derminers - my, our, your, his, her, its, their.
Demonstrative determiners - this, that, these, those.
Indefinite determiners - some, all, any, no, each, both, several, many, few.
Conjunctions join together words or clauses within a sentence.
Coordinating conjunctions join words within simple and compound
sentences. They are and, but, or, nor, either and neither.
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Subordinating conjunctions are used in complex sentences. They join
together a subordinate clause and a main clause, eg. You can't have a
sandwich because we've run out of bread; I will be annoyed if it rains
tomorrow.
Other subordinating conjunctions include; unless, when, while, as, before, until,
after, since, once, when, where, wherever, as, since, although, while, whereas,
than, like, as if, as though, so that, in order that.
Prepositions show how different parts of sentences relate to one another.
Eg. I pointed toward the landmark; we sheltered under an umbrella; we sat
opposite the station. Other prepositions include: like, out of, to, past, through,
on, at, by, over, for, from, out of, before, at, in.
Sentence construction
Minor sentences tend to be used in conversational English and don't follow
strict patterns. Minor sentences you might encounter are:
Abbreviated forms eg. Can't see the point; almost there.
Commands eg. Go away. Stop that
Exclamations eg. Help! What a day!
Formulae - brief expressions used in social situations eg. Cheers, thanks,
Interjections - expressing emotion eg. Ouch! Oh!
Questions which are just one or two words eg How much? Really?
Simple sentences contain one clause, one main verb and one idea.
Eg. The dog barked. The dog bit its owner. The dog barked loudly.
Compound sentences contain more than one clause which have equal
importance in the sentence. The clauses are joined by co-ordinating
conjunctions.
Eg. The dog barked and wagged its tail. The dog barked but it didn't appear
threatening. The dog barked and wagged its tail but it didn't move or bite her
Complex sentences contain a main clause [which makes sense on its own]
and one or more subordinate clauses [which do not].
The main clause has the most value in a sentence - without it we wouldn't be
able to make sense of it. The main clause is in italics:
The dog growled as if it wanted to savage me.
Subordinate clauses have less value in a sentence; they do not make complete
sense on their own. The subordinate clause is in italics:
We knew we had arrived in Port Talbot when we saw the purple smoke.
Subordinate clauses can also occur at the beginning , or in the middle of a
sentence. Eg. When we saw the smoke, we knew we had arrived in Port Talbot.
Compound - complex sentences contain both co-ordination and
subordination.
In the example below you will see that there is both a co-ordinating conjunction
[used to join clauses in a compound sentence] and a subordinate clause [the
type of clause used in a complex sentence]
Main clause conj main clause subordinate clause
The dog growled and bit the man who had kicked it.
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