A Knowledge Base for the Emerging Discipline of Computer Graphics
Tony Alley, EdD Oklahoma Christian University tony.alley@oc.edu Cary Laxer, PhD Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology laxer@rose-hulman.edu Susan Gold, MFA Sierra Nevada College sgold@sierranevada.edu Bary W Pollack, PhD Sierra Nevada College bpollack@sierranevada.edu Tereza Flaxman, MFA Rochester Institute of Technology tflaxman@rit.edu
Joe Geigel, DSc Rochester Institute of Technology jmg@cs.rit.edu Genevieve Orr, PhD Willamette University gorr@willamette.edu
Lewis Hitchner, PhD Cal Polytechnic State University hitchner@csc.calpoly.edu Candice Sanders formerly University of Rochester candicews@aol.com
Abstract: Computer Graphics is evolving as a discipline characterized by the fusion of artistic and technical theories and skills. The goal of the SIGGRAPH Curriculum Working Group has been to create a knowledge base that defines this discipline. This knowledge base is presented as a palette of subject areas and skills that forms the necessary educational framework for creation of undergraduate curricula that specialize in computer graphics. It facilitates the development of attributes that will create paths toward professional work, graduate studies, and lifelong skills-development and learning focused on computer graphics. The details provided here are principally oriented toward faculty members designing new computer graphics programs or those evolving existing ones. They also benefit students who wish to craft their own programs in computer graphics, as well as administrators and accreditors seeking guidance for framing and assessing these programs. Keywords: computer graphics education, curriculum, knowledge base.
1 Introduction
The idea of a discipline, or knowledge domain, is based upon three essential characteristics [Bertoline 1998, Kristiansen 2000, Rumble 1988, Sheth & Parvatiyar 2002]. First, theoretical and conceptual specialization must be demonstrated, often through a well-established and fairly unique research agenda. Next, it must be shown that the discipline can be characterized by a unique cultural identity. Finally, a discipline must demonstrate relative autonomy, in that a distinctive knowledge base can be articulated. The computer graphics discipline’s theoretical and conceptual autonomy and unique cultural identity are evident in many of SIGGRAPH’s (as well as Eurographic’s) programs and activities. That such a “special interest” group exists lends validity to the claim that computer graphics is an emerging discipline. An annual conference serves to distinguish the interests of the computer graphics community from other communities. The annual conference provides a venue for presentation of research findings. Words and phrases—such as “polygon,” “raster-based,” “non-uniform rational b-splines,” and “pixel”—are employed by computer graphics academicians and professionals in ways that point to a unique vocabulary. Professional journals and periodicals help define the bounds of the discipline and specialized research interests. Certainly, this and other evidence substantiates claims that computer graphics constitutes an emerging discipline; if not a young, but fully formed, discipline. It is noteworthy that the idea of a discipline, as employed here, may not correlate strongly with a particular academic department. While such an arrangement might be ideal, academic departments often reflect administrative organization as opposed to some structuring based on a knowledge base, research interests, or cultural identity. Computer graphics courses and programs can be found in engineering departments, art and design schools, film and animation programs, computer science departments, and elsewhere.
Nor does “discipline” necessarily correlate with any particular industry. An industry might draw from several disciplines or may be especially interested in one small area within a discipline.
2 Educational Goals
The task assigned to the SIGGRAPH Education Committee’s Curriculum Working Group has been to define the knowledge base associated with the computer graphics discipline. Because this knowledge base is most closely associated with the broader discipline, and not any particular application or industry, it has great potential as a starting point for curriculum development and evaluation. It defines, in broad terms, those skills and concepts that every computer graphics student should have some exposure to and with which every instructor ought to have some familiarity. The ACM SIGGRAPH Education Committee has sponsored a number of educational resource projects and reports that list topics and curricula for computer graphics education [ACM SIGGRAPH]. Perhaps the most significant of these was the “Computer Graphics Taxonomy Project” by Jacquelyn Ford Morie [2001]. The report aims to define a taxonomy of CG concepts with breadth that covers all topics relevant to computer graphics and with considerable depth. “The taxonomy includes basic and advanced CG concepts that are pertinent across many disciplines, from art to engineering” [Morie 2001]. The SIGGRAPH Education Committee has sponsored other curriculum projects, but each was focused on a single subdiscipline of CG, e.g., arts [Mones-Hattal, O’Connell, & Sokolove 1991], scientific visualization [Domik 2005; Owen 1999], computer science [Owen 2004], and engineering. The first known public presentation of a proposal for a discipline of computer graphics was during the SIGGRAPH 2001 Educator’s Program forum, “The Emerging Computer Graphics Curriculum,” led by Gary Bertoline. Bertoline proposed that computer graphics could stand on its own as a discipline of study [Bertoline 2001]. SIGGRAPH fora are audience participation events intended to provide arenas for possibly controversial topics, and this forum produced skepticism as well as enthusiasm. The following year, Bertoline and Laxer followed up with another SIGGRAPH Educator’s Program forum, “A Knowledge Base for the Computer Graphics Discipline” [Bertoline & Laxer 2002]. Attendees at the forum realized the potential for CG as an independent discipline and that forum provided the impetus for the work of the Curriculum Working Group. This working group met during the annual SIGGRAPH Conference in the summers of 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006 and its work has led to this report. Independently of SIGGRAPH, two universities have founded degree programs with curricula that encompass almost all areas of computer graphics. Traditional university CG curricula were constrained by the schools within which they were hosted, e.g., an arts-based curriculum within a fine arts or visual arts school, or a computer science and engineering-based curriculum within a mathematics, natural sciences, or engineering school. DePaul University’s School of Computer Science, Telecommunications, and Information Systems (CTI) offers degree programs in computer graphics with coursework that spans the entire breadth of the discipline [Depaul]. CTI’s degree programs include a Bachelor of Science in Computer Graphics and Animation that encompasses artistic as well as technical topics of study, though it requires students to choose a concentration that focuses slightly more on visual or technical software development aspects. For many years, Purdue University provided a cross-disciplinary degree program for computer graphics within the School of Technology. In 1997 the school created the department of Computer Graphics Technology [Purdue Department of Graphics Technology & Purdue Strategic Plan]. The CGT degree allows students to concentrate in one of many areas of computer graphics, but all concentrations require a core set of courses that span the full breadth of computer graphics.
3 Methodology
As noted above, the SIGGRAPH Curriculum Working Group (CWG) can trace its beginnings to the SIGGRAPH 2001 Conference Educators Program. At that conference, for the first time, the SIGGRAPH Educators Program provided Open Forums, “where conference participants and presenters joined in a dialogue that encouraged collective observation and thought, enabling groups to think beyond their members’ individual limitations.” One of that year’s forums was titled “The Emerging Computer Graphics Discipline,” led by Gary Bertoline of Purdue University [Bertoline 2001]. Bertoline challenged the audience to think of computer graphics as a renaissance discipline, on a continuum between art and computer science and electrical and computer engineering. One of the authors of this paper (Laxer)
approached Bertoline at the end of the forum session and offered to help continue the discussion of defining the computer graphics discipline. Discussions led to a second forum at the SIGGRAPH 2002 Conference Educators Program, where the goal was to try to develop a knowledge base for the discipline of computer graphics [Case 2001]. Bertoline and Laxer suggested that computer graphics had a multidisciplinary nature, involving components of cognitive psychology, geometry, imaging science, technology, art and design, and computer science. The audience was challenged to come up with core topics that were crucial to a computer graphics student’s education and that addressed this multidisciplinary nature. Two long lists of topics were generated, one from the computer science perspective and one from the art perspective. Audience members were asked to think over this list during the rest of the conference, and to send critiques to Bertoline and Laxer. From these lists, a knowledge base for the computer graphics discipline began to emerge. The next step was to devote significant effort to refining this knowledge base and the creation of a broad curricular framework for computer graphics. To that end, Bertoline and Laxer submitted a grant proposal to the SIGGRAPH Education Committee to bring ten computer graphics educators, representing computer science and art, together for a one day workshop immediately preceding the SIGGRAPH 2003 conference. This group became what is now referred to as the SIGGRAPH Curriculum Working Group (CWG). At that workshop, the participants agreed on a common core set of topics for all computer graphics students. Further, tracks for the artistically inclined student and the technically inclined student were identified. At the conclusion of the 2003 workshop, the participants realized that we had significant input from the computer graphics education community, but no input from the computer graphics industry, the very people who would employ graduates of computer graphics programs. Thus, the CWG decided to hold another workshop the day before the SIGGRAPH 2004 conference and invite industry representatives to meet with the group and express their thoughts on what skills and knowledge they would like to see in students graduating from computer graphics programs that would make them employable in the industry. Excellent input was received from several industry representatives which the CWG used to refine the developing curriculum. In 2005 the CWG met once more on the day before the SIGGRAPH conference to finalize the core set of topics and further refine the two tracks (artistic and technical). Excellent progress was made, and momentum was built, but the work could not be accomplished in the one day. The group decided to meet again at Sierra Nevada College in November to continue the work. It was during this meeting that the CWG made a deliberate decision to return to a single track, rather than the two separate artistic and technical tracks defined during earlier meetings. The group’s rationale was that the knowledge base ought to define a single unified discipline of computer graphics, rather than a collection of separate but overlapping sub-disciplines. It was argued that computer graphics had matured and grown to where it encompassed a significant and sizable core of knowledge essential for everyone working in the field, regardless of specialization. Current computer graphics faculty and professionals may be uncomfortable with the concept of a single discipline because, for the most part, they were trained within the boundaries of traditional majors such as art or computer science. However, students today have grown up with computers everywhere in their lives and, thus, are accustomed to using them in ways that ignore and defy traditional boundaries. Many want to learn all aspects of the discipline equally. Students who still gravitate either towards the artistic or technical areas, will find that the best preparation before specialization will be a broad based education exposing them, at least in some limited way, to all aspects of the discipline.
4 Assessment
In August 2006, an open forum was held at the SIGGRAPH conference to receive broader feedback on the proposed knowledge base. Audience input affirmed that the CWG’s efforts were in the right direction. The decision to present a single unified knowledge base was positively received by the forum attendees. The CWG met immediately following the SIGGRAPH conference to refine the knowledge base one last time, with input from international colleagues (representing Europe, South America, and Japan) adding to the discussion. The knowledge base contained in this paper was the result of subsequent refinements made during this final meeting and thus reflect the comments received made at the forum. In September 2006, the knowledge base was also presented at the Eurographics Workshop on Computer Graphics Education 2006: "Defining an International Curriculum in Computer Graphics", Vienna, Austria
which was attended by 23 participants representing 10 different countries. The feedback was positive and portions of the knowledge base were used as the starting point for defining an international curriculum intended to meet the Bologna education requirements in Europe [Bourdin, Cunningham, Fairén, & Hansmann 2006].
5 Conclusions
The goal of the SIGGRAPH Curriculum Working Group (CWG) has been to create a curriculum knowledge base (CKB) that defines the single unified discipline of computer graphics, characterized by the fusion of artistic and technical theories and skills. Its validity derives from the process used to compile and refine it, namely, a process involving long discussions over multiple years between numerous educators (national and international) and industry representatives from both art and computer science. These discussions occurred both in working group meetings as well as in public SIGGRAPH forums. As a result, the CWG believes that the resulting knowledge base reflects the broad consensus of the full computer graphics community. The CKB, as defined during the CWG’s August 2006 meeting, contains seventeen core areas. These are listed below along with a brief rationale for each. The accompanying text document repeats these seventeen areas along with sub-headings and additional detail. Content isn’t meant to be exhaustive but, instead, provides general guidance and examples of curricular experiences and concepts. Computer graphics programs are not expected to replace existing digital art or computer science programs, but rather would evolve alongside them. These new programs will likely emphasize some portions of the knowledge base over others depending on the strengths and inclination of the individual schools. However, it is strongly suggested that every student who is serious about computer graphics will invest some amount of time, whether small or large, with every listed concept. This approach was reaffirmed by the comments made at the SIGGRAPH 2006 Educators Forum session where CKB was presented. CORE AREAS CGF: Fundamentals The Computer Graphics Fundamentals component of the Curriculum Knowledge Base serves multiple purposes. First, it frames the discipline and defines the scope of areas to be addressed, providing a plan of study for students and instructors—a roadmap of things to come. Computer graphics, as with any discipline, has a language and culture of its own. As students begin an in-depth study of the discipline, they must first be introduced to its fundamental vocabulary, history, tools, etc. Likewise, students will be best served if they are introduced, broadly, to the career opportunities, roles, responsibilities, and applications associated with computer graphics. PI: Professional Issues In this complex world of digital media, students must learn more than just the art and science of graphics; they also must learn about relevant ethical and legal issues, as well as the business and marketing of one’s own work. In addition, the highly collaborative nature of the field means that students must understand how to work with others inside and outside their own discipline, and with those from other cultures and backgrounds. CGP: Physical Sciences Computer graphics practitioners, whether they are modelers, animators, or programmers, require a solid understanding of the physical world in order to accurately represent such things as lighting effects, the physical structure and movement of characters, and physical processes such as gravity, momentum, fluid, or fire. CGM: Math Images and animations are represented and rendered by the computer using mathematical structures and algorithms. Effective use of graphics software is not possible without some basic understanding of this representation, which includes coordinate systems, transformations, projections, and geometry. More indepth topics such as quaternians or numerical methods are important for students implementing or researching new and advanced techniques.
PC: Perception and Cognition The ultimate consumer of computer graphics is the human being. As such, an understanding of the human perceptual system is essential for effective use of graphics. Consideration of human perception is important not only with respect to design and aesthetics, but also serves as a guide in the definition, implementation, and optimization of graphics algorithms and systems designed specifically for human use. HCI: Human Computer Interaction What a graphic artist can create is greatly influenced by the nature and quality of the computer interface, which includes the standard mouse, tablet and monitor, as well as a range of newer devices being developed in areas such as virtual reality and haptics. Computer graphics practitioners need to understand the basic issues, methodologies, and language of HCI in order to use these devices effectively and to provide useful feedback for new and modified designs. Programming & Scripting Computer graphics software is created through programming which translates mathematical algorithms and modeling data into images on a screen. Programming skills are, of course, essential for software developers but they are also valuable for software users who will more effectively use software tools if they have some understanding of how the tools are created. In addition, many effects cannot be achieved through the built-in software tools, but require the user to implement their own effects through scripting. CGA: Animation As the use of graphics moves from single images to multiple frame motion sequences, the study of object motion becomes vital. Animated films, special effects for cinema, computer games, and real time visualization systems are all products of animation that have become ubiquitous in today’s world. The problem of animation is simple: for each frame determine the position and orientation of the objects within a scene. The challenge in animation is to develop means to define or compute all of this required information using algorithms with intuitive controls and reasonable parameters. CGR: Rendering One of the more classic problems in computer graphics is that of rendering. Simply stated, rendering is process by which images are generated from 3D scene descriptions. CGM: Modeling In order to render a scene or animated sequence, one must first be able to mathematically describe the scene. Modeling is the process of defining, using mathematical operations and constructs as a basis, objects that appear in a scene. An understanding of modeling methods, as well as the effective and efficient use of these methods is critical. CGH: Graphics Hardware This area involves the underlying machinery that comprises graphics systems. An understanding of the fundamental devices, peripherals, and hardware components is crucial in making the most effective use of existing system and the design and creation of future systems. DI: Digital Images The essential output of any graphics system is the image. Engineering, science, mathematics, and photography have developed a basic theory of images along with tools, algorithms, and models that employ this theory. An understanding of this theory for basic analysis and manipulation of images is essential for any graphics practitioner. COM: Communications Computer graphics is about visually conveying a story to an audience, regardless of whether the story refers to a scientific process, a fairy tale or a television commercial. All story development begins with writing and is followed by a process that is almost always collaborative, relying critically each player’s ability to communicate a vision and goal to their audience, the other collaborators, and the financial supporter.
CUL: Cultural Perspectives: Computer graphics does not exist in a vacuum. Cultural norms, political and economic environments, and individual beliefs all affect choices with regard to form and content of the work produced, as well as how the final work will be perceived by the audience. ART: Art and Design Foundation Art and design have evolved with the inclusion of digital media. Traditional study of art and design theory has remained relevant, but this transformation has necessitated the inclusion of computer oriented information in the study of these basic elements and principles. Thus, topics such as the history of computer oriented art and design, chaos theory and fractals are included. Tools are also evolving digitally. Techniques are both traditional media based, such as brush and charcoal, three dimensional work with clay or mat board, as well as software skills i.e. Maya, Flame, etc. Creativity and idea generation have always been extremely important in Art and Design and they are no less important in computer graphics. Artists and designers are also more and more likely to have international impact. For this reason it is also important that the student understand the role that this new discipline of computer graphics might hold upon our culture and our world society. RTG: Real-Time Graphics The use of graphics in real time applications presents it own set of special challenges. Addressing these challenges involve the optimal use of hardware and software, as well as the design and development new and efficient algorithms. Topics in this area explore solutions to these particular challenges and investigate design and implementation issues around applications that can benefit from real time performance. CGA: Advanced Topics These topics are of value to more advanced students interested in focusing on the scientific and technical areas of computer graphics. They are included here for completeness, but are not considered essential for all students.
6 Future Work
The curriculum knowledge base (CKB) presented here is intended as a starting point. The next step is to arrange topics into courses and curricula appropriate for different types of programs and schools characterized, for example, by size, length of program (e.g. two or four year), and school type, (e.g. liberal arts, research university, or professional). Suggestions and proposals are currently being discussed within the SIGGRAPH Education Committee regarding work in this direction. Some work has already begun. At the Eurographics Workshop on Computer Graphics Education 2006, the CKB served as a starting point for defining standardized courses and curricula that satisfy the new European Bologna requirements. The workshop outcome was a list of courses and topics at the basic level (three or four year Bachelors) and advanced level (two or one year Masters) [Bourdin, Cunningham, Fairén, & Hansmann 2006]. The ACM SIGGRAPH Education Committee is also exploring the idea of applying the CKB taxonomy to the CGEMS online database system for educational content. Educators would submit course syllabi and curricula which would then be peer-reviewed to insure quality. The result would be a publicly available online database of sample educational materials that would be searchable based on CKB keywords [Barry 2006]. The CKB taxonomy may also be applied to the proposed cgSource online resource [Hanisch, Weishar, Barry, Figueiredo, Gaynor, & Leong 2007] which is intended to complement CGEMS. CgSource submissions would be subject to public comment and scrutiny.
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