Recommended Materials for Sustainable Construction
This document was last reviewed and revised September 2005 This schedule is intended to suggest more sustainable alternatives to common building elements - it is for guidance only. It aims to be practical on the basis of price, supply and installation. We have sought to check the information provided, however, there may be issues, which make other alternatives more practical or sustainable, and it should be recognised that opinions and advice varies widely from source to source. We advise that this database is used as a first step in seeking more sustainable materials - as a way of starting a dialogue - and is not intended to prevent consultants proposing different approaches based on their own knowledge and research. This document is intended to support the following briefs: · Concrete and Structural Repairs · Roof Renewal · Security and Safety · Landscape · Central Heating · Window Renewal
These as well as policy and procedure documents on sustainable construction are available on: http://www.lambeth.gov.uk/Services/HousingPlanning/Planning/RecommendedMaterialsConstruction.htm
Key references/Sources: Handbook of Sustainable Building: Anink, Boonstra, Mak;1996 James & James Green Guide to Specification: Third Edition: Anderson, Shiers, Sinclair; 2002 BRE/Blackwell Science Green Guide to Housing Specification: Anderson, Howard; 2000 BRE/CRC Greener Building, products and services directory: Hall & Warm; AECB www.bre.co.uk/sustainable/ www.ecoconstruction.org (for recycled construction materials ) www.greenspec.co.uk Glossary HDPE EPDM Embodied Energy Carbon sink
High Density Polyethylene Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer The amount of energy needed to make (and transport) a product Locks carbon up that could exist as carbon dioxide
Lambeth Housing – Performance, Strategy & Regeneration – Environmental Development Team M:\Housing\Updates_internet\RecommendedMaterialsSpreadsheet.doc.doc: 14/11/05
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1st PREFERENCE TIMBER USE Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC) Certified timber (as per Lambeth housing policy)
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons
COMMENTS
Cost comparison
Building Fabric
Ensures that UK home grown timber is from timber sustainable managed forests. Timber has low energy content and if certified is quintessentially renewable. Very low impact. Diverts waste for re-use. Low haulage Non-FSC certified Loss of forests and biodiversity distance and very timber low risk of bad forestry practice Certified soft and hard woods are comparable in price to non-certified. The premium is usually around 5%.
Reclaimed timber
Often adds character and texture
Varies
RECLAIMED / RECYCLED MATERIALS Reclaimed materials salvaged from demolition and reused
Replaces the need for new materials and therefore saves up to 95% of the embodied impact of that component
Materials or products with a recycled content
Replaces the New materials need for a proportion of the new material and See so saves on www.ecoconstructio embodied n.org impacts of extraction
Environmental impact of extraction, processing and transport of new materials
Using reclaimed usually requires a change of supplier and can take time to source.
Reclaimed materials can be cheaper than new. Often they are more expensive but better quality. Comparative costs of recycled products vary according to the scale of manufacture.
EXTERNAL DRAINAGE Vitrified Clay pipes
Durable, Low High Density Low embodied Polyethylene piping energy durable embodied energy. Waste is inert and safe to dispose.
PVC
Environmental impact of chlorinated compounds in manufacture, use and disposal
Clay 30% cheaper than PVC inc fittings. E.g. 150mm dia Land Drain £21.30 /3m £39.95 for UPVC Plasti-Drain.
GROUND FLOOR Timber (FSC accredited or reclaimed)
Low embodied energy, renewable
Less embodied Solid concrete Hollow concrete elements or beam energy than solid and block (both with concrete. High
High energy; high Timber floors have to be Timber ground floors can work volume of made airtight and protected out cheaper overall than aggregates against moisture concrete beam and block,
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1st PREFERENCE
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons maximum recycled recyclate content content pref); with can replace both ply decking on cement and virgin battens or flue gas aggregate. anhydrite screed on separating membrane.
COMMENTS
Cost comparison especially when used as part of a timber frame system.
GROUND FLOOR INSULATION Mineral wool/ Stone Free of blowing wool (e.g. RockWool) agent, but can contain formaldehyde
Expanded polystyrene
Recycled cellulose insulation. For example, VITAL® 040, from Construction Resources INTERMEDIATE FLOORS Timber (FSC accredited or reclaimed) with T&G boarding PARTY FLOORS Timber (FSC accredited) with T&G boarding
Uses less energy Polyurethane to make than extruded polystyrene but more than mineral wool. Uses pentane as blowing agent which has no ozone damaging or global warming affect. Extruded polystyrene
Oil based product In the mineral wool group with high stone-wool/rock-fibre (e.g. embodied energy Rock Wool) is claimed to be the best in whole lifecycle terms.
Mineral wool is usually half the price of expanded polystyrene. Polyurethane is significantly more expensive than either.
Likely to have used HFC blowing agent. (HCFC now illegal). High embodied energy
Low embodied energy, renewable
Timber usually proves the cheapest option for individual dwellings where there are no party floor requirements. Pre-cast concrete slabs or beam and block (both with maximum recycled content pref); with ply decking on Less embodied Solid concrete energy than solid concrete. High recyclate content can replace both cement and virgin High energy; high Care has to be taken with Precast concrete floors are volume of sound insulation of timber normally considered most aggregates party floors economic for new build. However, timber can be more economic, especially if part of a timber frame system with
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Low embodied energy, renewable
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1st PREFERENCE
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons battens or flue gas aggregate. anhydrite screed on separating membrane Low embodied energy, renewable Concrete blocks with maximum recyclate content Durable material Pre-fab concrete High embodied energy with reduced embodied CO2
COMMENTS
Cost comparison proven technical performance.
PARTY WALLS Timber frame (FSC accredited)
Timber frame walls are more expensive in material terms but are quicker to erect and can work out cheaper overall than masonry. As for Party Walls.
PARTITIONS Timber stud (FSC accredited or reclaimed)
Low embodied energy, renewable
Hollow concrete blocks; Aerated concrete blocks
Durable material Pre-fab concrete High embodied with less energy embodied energy than solid concrete.
EXTERNAL CLADDING Durable wood (FSC Low embodied accredited) grade I or energy, II renewable
Brickwork
Durable material Treated softwood Most timber Durable timbers like oak treatments use and Douglas fir and larch long-lived toxins. heartwood do not need treatment if detailed to avoid constant damp.
Reclaimed bricks
Ultra low embodied energy, diverting waste – brick crushing for hardcore is very energy intensive. Durable.
Uncertified hardwood
Loss of forests and biodiversity
A brickwork outer leaf is comparable in price with durable wood rainscreen cladding, subject to specification. Prices for timber cladding will vary considerably with species. Reclaimed bricks usually more expensive than new but improve texture and character.
EXTERNAL WALLS (EXISTING) Repointing existing Minimal use of brickwork materials. HARDCORE & AGGREGATE Recycled Aggregate
Cladding of durable Durable materials timber or render over existing
Repointing is cheaper and more sustainable.
Recycled material
Sources One-to- One
Recycled aggregate is usually
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1st PREFERENCE Class RCA (II) for road sub base. Crushed concrete to BS882 for aggregate
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons COMMENTS Cost comparison diverted from Demolition, Erith Recycling cheaper than virgin material. landfill, if recycled on site reduces impact from extraction Epoxy fillers and coatings Toxicity Mineral fillers are cheaper than epoxy fillers.
CONCRETE REPAIR Mineral fillers and coatings STRUCTURAL SYSTEM Timber framed Light weight, low Other framed structure embodied energy structure – either steel, concrete or even aluminium CAVITY WALL INSULATION Mineral wool / Stone Free of blowing Expanded wool (e.g. RockWool) agent, but can polystyrene – Flakes contain formaldehyde
More lightweight Masonry structure High embodied than solid energy of masonry materials construction
Internal thermal mass can be added using a sludgeboard product.
Uses less energy Extruded polystyrene, to make than Polyurethane extruded polystyrene
Petrochemical product - nonrenewable resource. Likely to have used HFC blowing agent.
Recycled cellulose insulation (e.g. Warmcell)
Recycled material, v low embodied energy.
Cavity wall insulation is cheaper than internal or external wall insulation for new build. Moisture in insulating material, including mineral wool, will increase thermal conductivity by a large factor Recycled cellulose needs protecting from damp Ensure product meets international standards (e.g. Warmcell)
Mineral wool is usually half the price of expanded polystyrene. Polyurethane and extruded polystyrene are is significantly more expensive than either (but is more thermally efficient.) Recycled cellulose (such as Warmcell) is comparable with mineral wool.
EXTERNAL WALL INSULATION SYSTEMS Mineral wool / Stone HFC free, but wool (e.g. RockWool) can contain with rendering or formaldehyde overcladding.
Expanded polystyrene with rendering.
Uses less energy Polyurethane, to make than Extruded extruded polystyrene polystyrene but more than mineral wool. Uses pentane as blowing agent which has no
Petrochemical product - nonrenewable resource.
Usually used for refurbishment, external insulation gives a low U value with no cold bridging and can be carried out with tenants in occupation. Internal insulation is however, cheaper and does not change external
See notes for cavity wall insulation. If recycled cellulose is used, it must be detailed to prevent water ingress.
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1st PREFERENCE
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons COMMENTS ozone damaging appearance of the building; or global warming affect. Renewable material Must be detailed to prevent water ingress
Cost comparison
Wood fibre board. With rendering or overcladding INTERNAL WALL INSULATION Recycled cellulose insulation
Recycled material, v low embodied energy.
Mineral wool/ Stone Free of any blowing agent, wool but can contain formaldehyde
See notes for cavity wall insulation.
See notes for cavity wall insulation.
ROOF FORM Pitched
Pitched roofs “Green” Flat Roof – See roof shed watersee roof coverings coverings below reduces demand below on roof covering, can increase life.
Pitched roofs generally last The more cost effective roof longer without leaks and type will depends on the work out cheaper over the situation. full life of the roof.
PITCHED ROOF STRUCTURE Timber (FSC accredited or reclaimed), trussed rafters
Renewable Timber (FSC material. Very accredited or low embodied reclaimed), cut roof energy. Net carbon sink. Trussed rafters use almost 30% less material than traditional roof structure.
Renewable material. Very low embodied energy. Net carbon sink.
Trussed timber rafters are used for the majority of housing roof construction in the UK. “Cut roofs” comprising of timber cut on site usually work out more expensive except for very small quantities or complex shapes.
PITCHED ROOF INSULATION Recycled cellulose
Recycled material, v low embodied energy.
Mineral wool / Stone wool (e.g. RockWool)
Free of any blowing agent, but can contain formaldehyde
Polyurethane, Extruded polystyrene
Petrochemical product - nonrenewable resource.
See notes on cavity wall insulation for recycled cellulose
See notes for cavity wall insulation
PITCHED ROOF COVERINGS Recycled tiles or slates, natural slate
Recycled material. Low embodied
Artificial slates, tiles, steel
Higher embodied Zinc or copper energy than natural tiles or
Corrosion Recycled tiles and slates Concrete roof tiles normally contaminates are preferred (eg. cheapest option, followed by water runoff; zinc www.greenspec.co.uk/html/ clay tiles. Fibre cement
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1st PREFERENCE
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons COMMENTS Cost comparison energy. slates but very is relatively products/olwayslate.html); artificial slates are still more scarce For large sheet coverings expensive but slightly cheaper durable than natural slate. Reclaimed recycled materials (e.g. tiles and slates can be source steel for terne coated stainless steel) or economically viable subject to easily recycled materials availability. (e.g. profiled aluminium with no bonded insulants or coatings) preferred.
FLAT ROOF STRUCTURE Timber (FSC accredited or reclaimed)
Cellular concrete; beam and block construction
Timber usually works out cheaper for normal roof loadings. Spans of up to 6m are practical using composite timber beams, although at 6m spans the cost difference between timber and concrete will be marginal.
FLAT ROOF INSULATION (WARM DECK) Cork Renewable material
Expanded polystyrene
Uses less energy Polyurethane to make than extruded polystyrene
Oil based product Warm roofs preferred but with high cork may be too costly. embodied energy Inverted roofs require environmentally undesirable insulation.
Cork is roughly twice the cost of expanded polystyrene. Expanded polystyrene requires protection from foot traffic due to its low compressive strength.
FLAT ROOF INSULATION (COLD DECK) Cellulose fibre
Recycled material, v low embodied energy.
Mineral wool / Stone wool (e.g. RockWool)
Free of any blowing agent, but can contain formaldehyde
Extruded polystyrene
High embodied energy. Likely to have used HFC blowing agent.
For recycled cellulose, see See notes for cavity wall notes for cavity wall insulation. insulation. Cold roofs require ventilation and are not permitted under Scottish Building Regs
FLAT ROOF MEMBRANES EPDM sheet (Synthetic rubber)
Durable material Asphalt/ Bitumen Felt
Low recycling PVC rate and high raw
Concern EPDM systems including regarding impact the membrane are
Relative costs of each material vary with quantities
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1st PREFERENCE E.g. Firestone
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons COMMENTS material cost of manufacture available with a 20 year and disposal of warranty PVC due to presence of chlorine.
Cost comparison involved. Single ply membranes tend to be 4050% more expensive than asphalt and bitumen felt for small areas but work out more economical where large areas are required. Bitumen is usually slightly more expensive than asphalt.
COVERINGS TO FLAT ROOF MEMBRANES Ballasted with Ballasted with sedum Growing and gravel (or tiles) plants on clay renewable. granules Slows down rainwater dispersion, improves thermal performance. More benefits, see www.greenroof.c o.uk/html/main3. htm Ballasted with recycled crushed concrete
Gravel slows Bonded down membrane deterioration but has extraction impacts
Chemical impact Mechanical fixing is better A sedum roof covering costs than bonded but not as around 15% more than the good as ballasted. Note equivalent felt roof. However, extra weight of ballast the life span is around 50% particularly on timber roofs. longer as the membrane is Gravel is also protected. Sedum ballast unsatisfactory because of should be used as part of a extraction impact proprietary roofing system.
Avoids extraction impacts. “Brown roofs” are believed to offer better habitat to certain key species such as black redstarts (www.blackredsta rts.org.uk/pages/ greenroof.html) Durable material Zinc Metal corrosion contaminates runoff water. Zinc is relatively The use of lead is inevitable in some situations such as roof/wall junctions.
Cheaper than sedum or virgin gravel
FLASHINGS Polyethylene or EPDM Durable material Lead membranes
The small quantities involved make cost comparisons difficult. It is unlikely that Polyethylene or EPDM membranes will prove
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1st PREFERENCE
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons scarce.
COMMENTS
Cost comparison economically viable unless part of a roofing membrane system.
REPAIRS to WINDOWS & EXTERNAL DOORS A combination of Reduces raw Total replacement Use of raw repair and material use and materials and replacement. disposal impacts disposal impact. WINDOW REPLACEMENT Softwood (FSC Renewable accredited) with Boron material. Very implants low embodied energy. Net carbon sink.
Repair using softwood and Repair is usually cheaper epoxy fillers. Provide than replacement but this draught stripping to existing depends on the level of deterioration.
Aluminium; Durable material. PVC Timber/Aluminium composite
Concern regarding impact of manufacture and disposal of PVC due to presence of chlorine.
Higher specification softwood windows are similar in price to Aluminium. PVCu frames vary PVC, steel and aluminium considerably in price but are frames currently offer the typically more than the cost of soft-wood. When 60-year life best recycling potential. cycle costs are considered, PVCu & softwood windows are Timber frames have no residual value for recycling similar in cost. (from Building magazine) Composite and composite windows are more difficult to recycle. timber/aluminium windows are similar in cost to aluminium but usually a better quality product. See also Window Renewals Brief The material is as strong as aluminium. But has similar U-value and expansion to glass
Pulltruded fibre glass INTERNAL DOORS Hardboard flush doors Renewable in softwood frames material. Very (FSC accredited) low embodied energy. Net carbon sink. Reclaimed doors Ultra low embodied energy. Diverts waste and reuses as high grade product. Softwood doors (FSC accredited)
Good thermal performance, durable material. No chlorine used in manufacture Less durable Uncertified Loss of forests tropical hardwood and biodiversity
Plywood doors are usually For flush doors, plywood uncertified tropical finishes are more expensive hardwood than mdf or hardboard. For relative timber costs, refer to “timber use” above. For fire rated applications, Reclaimed doors can be very reclaimed doors need good value. additional certification or approval from Building Control.
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1st PREFERENCE INTERNAL THRESHOLDS Sustainable durable wood such as oak or beech (FSC accredited) Reclaimed wood
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons
COMMENTS
Cost comparison
Renewable Softwood (FSC material. Very low accredited) embodied energy. Net carbon sink. Ultra low embodied energy. Diverts waste and reuses as high grade product.
Less durable
Uncertified Loss of forests tropical hardwood and biodiversity
For relative timber costs, refer to “timber use” above
For joinery quality, reclaimed wood is often 20-50% more expensive but better quality wood.
INTERNAL STAIRS & BALUSTRADES Softwood (FSC Renewable accredited) material. Very low embodied energy. Net carbon sink.
Steel / precast concrete
Uncertified Loss of forests tropical hardwood and biodiversity
Staircases often contain For relative timber costs, refer tropical timber in ply risers to “timber use” above. Steel/Pc and Parana Pine strings concrete staircases start about four times the price of timber, dependent on design detail. Timber is not usually practical for common stairs to flats. New L1 Building Regs are Low E Glass windows usually based on low-E double cost 10-20% more than glazing ordinary units although on one scheme in LB Southwark the difference was found to be only 3-4% more.
GLAZING 28mm double glazing with low ‘E’ coatings & Argon filled cavity to meet or exceed Part L
28mm double Double glazing Single glazing glazing with low with low 'E' has emissivity coatings the performance of triple glazed
GUTTERS Coated aluminium Steel
Durable material Polyester
Lower energy PVC, Copper, than aluminium, Zinc but less durable
Concern regarding impact of chlorine; Metal corrosion contaminates runoff water
PPC aluminium gutters are around 2-3 times the material cost of uPVC.
ABOVE GROUND DRAINAGE Polyethylene
Durable material
PVC
Concern regarding impact of manufacture and disposal of PVC due to presence
PVC and Polyethylene are similar in price
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1st PREFERENCE
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons of chlorine.
COMMENTS
Cost comparison
Building Services
WATER SUPPLY & HEATING PIPEWORK Polypropylene Durable material Copper Extraction impact. Copper is used extensively, Plastic piping for heating use Metal corrosion but plastics are being used such as HeP2O or Unipipe contaminates run increasingly due to ease of (aluminium hdpe composite) off water. installation. costs slightly more than copper, but installation cost is far less. As above. As above.
Polybutylene Polyethylene external mains HEATING Condensing gas boilers with comprehensive control systems (e.g. timers and RTVs) ELECTRICAL CABLE Low Smoke Zero Halogen cables
Durable material Durable material
Energy efficient, uses about 15% less fuel than standard boilers
Standard boiler
Less energy efficient.
Initial capital costs are recouped with energy cost savings over the life of the boiler.
PVC
Concern regarding impact of manufacture and disposal of PVC due to presence of chlorine.
Cost comparisons not available.
ELECTRIC FITTINGS Energy Efficient Energy saving lighting, e.g. High frequency fluorescent or discharge lamps. Efficient fridges, Energy saving freezers, washing machines etc. COOKERS Lower CO2 emissions per kWh of heat Gas cookers delivered
Standard fittings Use more energy
Standard equipment
Use more energy
Initial capital costs are recouped with energy cost savings over the life of the fittings. Initial capital costs are saved with energy cost savings over the life of the fittings
Induction hob electric cooker
Higher carbon emissions than gas but very efficient use of
Conventional electric cookers
High grade electricity used for low grade heat
Induction hobs are more expensive than conventional electric cookers.
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1st PREFERENCE KITCHEN UNITS No recommended alternative to melamine faced chipboard worktops on units due to costs.
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons electricity
COMMENTS
Cost comparison
Building Finishes
JOINT FILLERS Mineral wool EPDM seals HFC free, but can contain formaldehyde Foam polyethylene Durable material Polyurethane tape foam Likely to have Choice depends on used HFC situation. Filler must be blowing agent. Oil compatible with sealant based product and background. high energy Costs not significant in relation to costs of building.
SEALANTS Silicone
Polysulphide
Polyurethane
Water based acrylic TILE FIXING Mortar bedding floor tiles. Water based adhesive for wall tiles FLOOR FINISHES Linoleum Low embodied Ceramic tiles energy, renewable resource. Natural product.
Solvent based acrylic Solvent based adhesive
Likely to have Choice depends on Costs not significant in used HFC situation. Sealant must be relation to cost of building. blowing agent. Oil compatible with filler and based product background. high energy Toxicity and disposal impact Toxicity and disposal impact Material cost insignificant.
PVC
Concern regarding impact of manufacture and disposal of PVC due to presence of chlorine.
Lino/PVC costs vary with manufacturer/type and can be more or less than one another. Ceramic floor tiles are usually at least 2-3 times the cost of lino or PVC. Linoleum is around 15% cheaper than PVC and lasts 50% longer. Basic specification ceramic tiles are similar in price to linoleum and typically last 25% longer than
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1st PREFERENCE PAINTWORK Natural paints
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons
COMMENTS
Cost comparison linoleum. Natural paints are more expensive than water based or alkyd.
High solids alkyd – exterior woodwork Mineral paint external walls Powder coating - ext steelwork
Uses earth and Water based acrylic Low solvent natural pigments, - interior walls & content & fillers. woodwork Generally renewable Low solvent content Low solvent content Very low solvent High solids alkyd content. Durable finish
Alkyd
Toxicity and disposal impact
Alkyd Alkyd
Toxicity and disposal impact Toxicity and disposal impact Toxicity and disposal impact
Interior and natural stain for Cost comparisons not exterior may be affordable available Cost comparisons not available Cost comparisons not available
Epoxy systems, red lead & unpainted
WALL FINISHES Wall paper from recycled paper Unsealed cork tiles
Recycled product Renewable resource, natural material
Vinyl wallpaper
Contains PVC
Cost comparisons not available Cost comparisons not available
Landscaping
HARD LANDSCAPE PAVING Reclaimed paving Ultra low material embodied energy, diverts waste and avoids extraction and manufacture Concrete slabs made Recycled Durable material Asphalt Concrete slabs with recycled material - lower aggregate embodied energy GARDEN DIVISIONS Hedges Wildlife habitats, Untreated Douglas Low embodied Treated timber renewable, net fir or larch energy, Carbon absorber, heartwood on renewable but needs concrete spur posts resource
Lambeth Housing – Performance, Strategy & Regeneration – Environmental Development Team M:\Housing\Updates_internet\RecommendedMaterialsSpreadsheet.doc.doc: 14/11/05
It is possible to reclaim high quality stone or blockwork paving for free and pay only the handling and haulage costs.
Can be cheaper than new if the material is handled only once or twice and comes from a local source ie. low haulage and handling costs.
Low recycling Check availability of £3.89 300x300x50 - Vobster rate and high raw recycled paving materials. Cast Stone containing material impact recycled glass. Most timber Hedging will probably treatments use require temporary fencing long-lived toxins. whilst it becomes established. Cost of hedging is dependant on age of hedging plants. Temporary fencing could be recycled.
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1st PREFERENCE
NOT Env. Reasons 2nd PREFERENCE Env. Reasons RECOMMENDED Env. Reasons maintenance Recycled plastic Recycled wood substitute material, durable material
COMMENTS
Cost comparison Ultra Wood, Flo-Pak Ltd, Northants tel 01280703161 75mmsq £8.44/m 15x150 £3.38/m Delivery 4-6wks Timber likely to be cheaper than masonry but could be less durable, subject to design and workmanship.
BIN STORES Untreated Douglas fir or larch heartwood on concrete spur posts (FSC accredited)
Renewable material. Very low embodied energy. Net carbon sink.
Masonry
Durable material Treated timber
Most timber treatments use long-lived toxins.
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