hr information system

Working Paper Series Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) as Means of Fulfilling Job Roles More Professionally for Human Resource (HR) Managers Zahid Hussain Peter Prowse Working Paper No 04/07 March 2004 The working papers are produced by the Bradford University School of Management and are to be circulated for discussion purposes only. Their contents should be considered to be preliminary. The papers are expected to be published in due course, in a revised form and should not be quoted without the author’s permission. W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S HUMAN RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEMS (HRIS) AS MEANS OF FULFILLING JOB ROLES MORE PROFESSIONALLY FOR HUMAN RESOURCE (HR) MANAGERS Dr Zahid Hussain (BA Hons (Mgt), MSc (IS), MSc (HRM), PgDip (Ed-LT), PhD (IS), ILTHEM) Lecturer in Information Systems School of Management University of Bradford Emm Lane Bradford BD9 4JL Telephone: +44 (0)1274 234332 Fax: +44 (0)1274 546866 Email: z.i.hussain@bradford.ac.uk Dr Peter Prowse (BA Hons (IR), MSc, Dip.Soc.Stud, FIPD, MILT, PhD(Phil)) Lecturer in Industrial Relations School of Management University of Bradford Emm Lane Bradford BD9 4JL Telephone: +44 (0)1274 234454 Fax: +44 (0)1274 546866 Email: p.j.prowse@bradford.ac.uk ABSTRACT In recent years information systems (IS) have been deployed by organisations for achieving efficiency, effectiveness, enhancing quality and gaining competitive advantage. Similarly Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) are used by Human Resource (HR) departments to achieve similar objectives. This research aims to investigate the impact of HRIS on HR Manager’s present and future roles and decisions making. It is concerned with looking at the role of HRIS as a medium for HR managers for performing their job roles more professionally or perhaps as a means for reducing their status after years of hard-earned recognition. This research will investigate whether, and to what extent HRIS are enabling HR managers to enhance their job roles to attain increased professional status. It will evaluate whether HRIS are enabling current HR managers to achieve increased recognition and professionalism. This will be examined by looking at the nature of HRIS and the nature of HR managers’ job roles (traditional and new emerging ones) followed by a focus on the impact of HRIS on HR managers’ job roles. 3 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S 1) INTRODUCTION – SCOPE AND NATURE OF THE RESEARCH Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) have been used in HR departments for many years, but more recently their use has changed to that of playing a more strategic role to support HR workers, in particular HR managers. The job contents and the expectations from HR managers have changed over the last a few years, with functional and strategic pressures ever growing on them (Armstrong, 1984, 1994; Kinnie and Arthurs, 1996; Ball, 2000; Mabey et al., 2000). Economic pressures have resulted in structural changes taking place within organisations. The historical image of the HR role was a job that nobody wanted nor had the expertise to do. Senior managers used HR managers to smoothen the turbulence of organisational change, leaving them free to get on with the strategic work of the organisation. The role of the HR manager had gained status in organisations compared to previous years (Personnel Management,1993: p69). HR activities have been classified both in terms of added value and uniqueness. Organisations can easily evaluate this added value. In most cases, this does not just lead to slimming-down of the HR function - with many processes being undertaken by line management, but it also fundamentally changes the role of HR specialists. Thus the realisation that the HR specialist’s new role was developing into a strategic contributor to the business (Personnel Management, 1993). Despite this optimistic perspective some of the UK evidence has confirmed little use of IT for analytical decision support activities (Kinnie and Arthurs, 1992; Ball, 2000). In contrast, other evidence argues that HRIS developments closely to match the changing need of HR managers and assist by offering strategic level support to organisations(Softworld Report, 1996,1997; Robinson, 1999). This identifies an increase in adopting HRIS for the benefit of HR departments and HR managers and emphasise highlights the changing role of HR directors and managing directors. The evidence argues that this trend is taking place at increasing pace and HR managers would make the necessary use of HRIS to achieve improved performance and that ‘removing routine administration allows them to become professional consultants to the rest of the organisation’ (Softworld Report, 1996,1997). This enables HR Information systems to provide quality information to the board to enhance informed decision making (Softworld Report, 1996,1997:p16). 4 Research would also consider new emerging roles such as consultancy. Edward (cited in Softworld Report, 1996) believes that it is important that HRIS can facilitate strategic working as well as lower-level workings, such as designing employee reward systems. Different levels of use has its own issues associated with it, such as input errors made by users compared to system design errors (Liff, 1997; Laudon and Laudon, 2002). The need for information varies at different levels of organisational hierarchy. Information required by senior managers differs from operational level workers. For example, board of directors and top managers require executive reports and summaries. Managers at departmental level require more day-to-day management information, and HRIS caters for this. Edward (cited in Softworld Report, 1996) places more emphases on tangible benefits of HRIS such as faster response of HR managers to organisational management with some companies are taking a more long-term view, she believes: HR managers can improve both their company’s performance and their own status within the company, by honing their knowledge of the packages on the market and what they are capable of delivering (Softworld, 1996:p23). Both Rees and Edward (both cited in Softworld Report, 1996), concluded that HRIS should be seen as a medium for HR managers to perform their job roles (even) more effectively in their organisations. This issue had been argued by earlier authors (Gallagher, 1986: Broderick and Boudreau, 1992). Gallagher (1997) argues that HRIS can influence effectiveness in four ways: Firstly, with emphasis on increased productivity from the workforce, recruitment, short term working, temporary, and less redundancies. Secondly, it deals with the increasing demands made by legislation, which related to HR practices and the increased need to produce statistics for government. The third factor was the rate of the development of computer technology. The final factor was the increased availability of HRIS at lower costs. The professional body argued that effective HRIS use leads to efficiency (CIPD, 1999). This research will investigate whether HRIS are actually assisting HR managers to fulfil their job roles more professionally in the UK. In undertaking this research we generated a number W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S of research questions (RQ) that were based on aims of this research. They are: (1) to explore the role of HR managers and their use of IS in fulfilling these roles, (2) to focus on the contribution of IS in developing professional status, (3) to what extent is IS assisting HR managers to deal with the emerging roles. 2) LITERATURE ON HRIS AND HRM Business operations: Day to day activities of the organisation, such as producing its products or delivering its services. Management of organisation: The activities for controlling and monitoring the day-to-day activities of the organisation in the context of its aims and goals. Strategic objectives: The long-term, objectives and goals of the organisation. A contemporary use of IS has become more advanced and enables organisation to make a more strategic use of them, as mentioned by Tyson and Fell. Different types of systems and their use is: Transaction Processing Systems (TPS): TPS are used to undertake day-to-day activities, transactions and functions at operational level. These systems help to make Operational Decisions such as stock control. Management Information Systems (MIS): MIS are used for predicting the financial operations of the organisation as well as graphical models that provide a visual illustration of the information. These systems help to make Management Control Decisions such as comparisons of data or budget data. Strategic Information Systems (SIS): SIS type “systems ... provide information to senior executive managers on strategic areas of a business organisation’s activities, to aid strategic decision-making” (Lucey, 1997:p232). These systems help to make Strategic Decisions that involve decisions based on ill-defined problem. A summary of the use of these three levels of IS is provided in the Figure 1 taken from Elliott and Starkings (1998). 2.1 Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) Rapid changes in information systems (IS) in last five decades have been strongly influential on modern organisations (Avison and Shah, 1997; Chaffey, 2003). Many organisations are using IS as a tool for enhancing efficiency. This is consistent with the writings of IS writers like Edwards et al (1995), Elliott and Starkings (1998), Renkema (2000), and, Laudon and Laudon (2002) the use of IS, which includes systems such as HRIS, has become widespread in most organisations and more employees and departments in all types of organisations are heavily reliant on such systems. Softworld (1996/7) also reported a rise in the use of HRIS in the UK. The reducing cost of personal computers has provided medium and smaller businesses access to both hardware and hardware for the use of HRIS (Ball, 2001) The use of IS in organisation can enable them to increase efficiency, effectiveness and integration. Three general uses of IS in organisations are: FIGURE 1: DIFFERENT LEVELS OF IS USE (SOURCE: ELLIOTT AND STARKINGS, 1998:P48) 5 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S Therefore IS, including HRIS, can be used at various levels of the organisation to accomplish various types of tasks by various levels of organisational workers (Chaffey et al., 2003). Figure 1 shows that IS are used at three levels: strategic, tactical/middle and operational, hence there are three types of IS (EIS, MIS and TPS) that are used by three different level of workers (strategic, middle management and operational). Figure 1 illustrates that the number of people making strategic use of IS are usually low and situated in senior managerial positions in the organisational hierarchy. It demonstrates that senior organisational workers within the organisation are fewer in number than those at the bottom and they have shorter time horizon for making decisions than those at operational levels. It emphasises that authority to make decisions at the top of the apex is higher, are more uncertain and require a lot more authority than those at the bottom. Decisions made at senior levels of management are also more problematic and the problem scope of these is much wider. Such decisions are a rare occurrence. In that respect organisational workers, including those at professional grades, such as HR managers would have to use them at various levels to yield maximum benefits from them. What has not been established is the level they were using HRIS in their daily work, since such systems are being used at various levels, from very operational level used in undertaking routine work to more strategic level work for making judgements. Most early HRIS were used at operational levels in their early days and more recently they are being used at more strategic level as their functionality becomes more advanced. A more advanced use of IS for strategic level work may be happening due to advances in technology (Laudon and Laudon, 2002; Lucey, 1997; Avison and Shah, 1997, Chaffey et al., 2003, Robson, 1997). HRIS are used at different levels of the organisation to help HR managers to accomplish different levels of tasks hence the impact of HRIS on the role of a HR manager is likely to be a major one. According to Laudon and Laudon (2002) HRIS are used at three levels of organisation as they offer a comprehensive set of functionality, such as training, career pathing and compensation analysis. The requirements from HRIS have been changing in recent years (Gallagher, 1986:p89; Softworld, 1996, 1997). A full HRIS offers a wide range of modules ranging from strategic to operational, as shown in table 1. Usually when we use the term HRIS, we imply a fully developed HRIS. Most vendors offer full systems but some also offer partial systems. Softworld (1997:p4) identified a general increase in the use of HRIS. The current systems offer the following types of modules, as shown in Table 1. Norman and Edwards (cited in Softworld, 1997) highlight that some modules are more popular by HR departments. There is an attempt to convince line management to increase their use of HRIS. Management Today (1993:p23) found line management held an adverse opinion about HRIS and that this needed to change if professionals were to enhance their status. Softworld (1996/7) has carried out a survey of people other than the HR managers who use HRIS. The evidence identified the majority of users were the HR/Personnel department’s staff (87.9%) followed by the department’s directors (56.9%) and training managers (54.3%). Potential future users were identified as line managers (66.4%), and HR/Personnel directors (38.8%). The significant growth of use by line managers (up 48.3%) (Softworld 1997:p33). This increased use of IS could empower HR professionals. 2.2 Human Resource Management (HRM) It is important to focus on the typical and traditional roles of HR managers as well as the new emerging changes to their roles, such as HR consultancy roles, forming HR plans and strategy and integrating them to organisational level strategy. HRIS have been designed to help HR TABLE 1: HRIS FUNCTIONS Personnel Records & Report Generation Disciplinary Control Holiday Management Time and Attendance Shift schedule Management Selection Company Car Management Performance Assessment Recruitment Management Payroll Organisational charting Testing of skills and aptitudes Personnel Development Needs Assessment Job Evaluation Data Interface Grievance Procedure Nationalities & Permit Processing Absence Monitoring Flexible Benefits Buildings Management Self Assessment Success Planning Test Development & Evaluation Job analysis Health and Safety Records Training Management Expenses Redeployment. 6 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S managers to perform different types of duties both routine and higher level. But do HRIS allow HR managers to perform their roles more professionally overall and gain better recognition? The HR profession has been changing constantly and reflects the wider changes to organisations, so the nature of their work, their professional recognition and even their use of IS would depend on the proposed changes to their jobs. The perceived importance and non-importance of HR profession is likely to have an impact on the system use by HR managers. HR professionals are more diverse than the traditional professionals. Farnham (1985) noted that unlike traditional professions, like lawyers, HR Management is not an homogeneous group being employed by different size, types and sectors of organisations. Another issue is how Human Resource Professionals gain power and status within organisations, Legge (1978) argues that the function can gain additional power and status by either conformity or challenging current business norms and paradigms to gain authority and power within organisations. Although this has been explored by both Shipton and McAuley (1990, p12) and Grant et al (1998) who argue that the enhanced of the personnel function by positioning itself within the organisation provides more power and status than the enhancement of professional status. 2.2.1 Types of HR Specialists/Managers Guest and Horwood (1981: cited in Armstrong, 1984) identified five types of HR specialists used by an organisations, distinguished by occupational category and status in the management hierarchy. Despite their diverse backgrounds HR managers, Cole (1997) argued, play a central role in their organisations. This importance of their role could be linked with McKinlay’s notion of “central wise man”. The purpose of HR manager should be judged to the extent they help the organisation to meet its objectives using their roles (Armstrong, 1984). There are 3 broad roles of HR manager (Advice on Policy, Advice on HR systems): advisory, service and functional roles (Hussain, 2002). 2.3 New emerging role of HR specialist: HR consultancy This discussion is concerned with analysing emerging strategic roles of HR specialists, where HR managers act like internal/external consultants and provide services at strategic levels on organisational planning and strategy (Hussain, 2002). HR professionals, especially, those who occupy higher positions are becoming more like internal/external organisational HR consultants. The use of the term “consultant” is interpreted generically as management, organisational and HR consultantancy. Since a HR consultant is a management/organisational consultant (Armstrong, 1994). Different writers have written about the typical roles of a consultant (Schein, 1987; Clark, 1995; Nees and Greiner, 1987) by assigning particular image and roles to consultants. The type of consultant is usually described using a metaphor (Clark, 1995), for example doctor-patient type of consultant (Schein, 1987). In essence some of the characteristics of the roles of a consultant are to: provide the information that is usually difficult to obtain; analyse information that is not known to the client; analyse complex organisational problems; train clients to use diagnostics models that he/she may have developed. The roles of a consultant have been defined in many ways (Clark, 1995), but the purpose of an organisational consultant (HR consultant) is to: understand, have relevant knowledge, motivate others, be a good listener/communicator, be neutral, be explorative, be empathetic and to envisage better ways of doing ‘things’ (Markham, 1998). Therefore a good consultant is: co-operative, enthusiastic, likes to perform, effective, determined, creative, honest and possesses good leadership skills who can work as part of a team, all key competencies in HR management (Cole, 1997). Schein (1987) believes that some consultants will mainly take on certain roles more than other roles depending on their nature or type of consultancy assignment. He provides a few different types of consultants, as shown in table 2 below. Each type of consultant places emphasis on certain roles than the others, offering different types of service in different organisations, and, may use all the roles provided in Table 2. Block (1991) also notes that the primary goals of a consultant are to establish a collaborative relationship, solve problems so they stay solved and ensure attention is given to both the technical/business problems and the relationships. He sees the roles of a consultant as an expert, extra pair-of-hands and collaborator. He believes that developing client commitment is an important aspect of consulting act. Therefore when comparing the a multiple roles and responsibilities of HR professional to a 7 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S TABLE 2: SCHEIN’S 3 CONSULTANCY ROLES SOURCE Expert Consultant Provision of expertise and information Specific, clear task boundaries. Client diagnosis is correct Client accepts responsibility for consultant solution Examination of organisational human process Task boundaries can be developed through diagnosis Client has appropriate information for ‘correct’ consultant diagnosis Consultant ‘prescription’ given, based on diagnosis Learning and development for future organisational use Wide task boundaries - agreed by client and consultant Joint client/consultant diagnosis of problems Joint client/consultant responsibility for outcomes It is worth noting that the structural changes in organisations have led to changes in the roles of HR specialists, many of whom are becoming internal consultants. We believe that two main reasons for engaging HR consultants in HR/organisational consultancy is to innovate new systems and procedures, and solve organisational/professional problems. Finally, in providing good consultancy and advice it is important for HR manager to have up-to-date and accurate information. HRIS can make this possible for them. 2.4 New emerging role of HR specialist: Strategy and planning Organisations have begun to realise the importance of HRM in achieving a better competitive advantage (Greer 1995:p130-2; Husleid, 1995; Hussain, 2002). This recognition along with increased environmental uncertainty, greater pressure to control costs and increased governmental labour initiatives have highlighted the strategic role of HRM (Peters and Waterman, 1982) and the need to change organisational culture in 1990s to bring it in line with the new economic change (Johnson and Scholes, 1993; Miles and Snow, 1986; Pettigrew and Whipp, 1991). Greer (1995) notes that HRM refers to the application of HR to meet organisation’s strategic requirements and objectives in an effective way. So it involves: ... getting the strategy of the business implemented effectively ... getting everybody from the top of the human organization to the bottom doing things that make the business successfull p13. Doctor/Patient Consultant Process Consultant consultant it becomes clear that in different circumstances a HR professional’s role may conform to Schein’s (1987) expert, doctor/patient and the process consultant roles. They may offer many types of services using many types of styles of consulting within their organisation. In that respect they can be referred to as consultants. HR professionals are consultants when required by an (their) organisation to provide manager consultation on various HR and even organisational issues. Armstrong (1994) believed that the main areas of HR consultancy are: general HR advice, HR problems, systems development (such as new policies and procedures), process consulting (work set-ups), training, recruitment and selection and benchmarking the performance or practice. Having experience of wider range of HR and organisational issues improves the expertise of HR professionals to develop as more effective role in consultancy than those offering very specialised services. Finally, the process followed by a typical consultant in his/her work is different to that followed by a HR professional. A consultant has to gain an entry and then follow a well-defined process (protocol that they are use to) in establishing what needs to be done, although the final output may be similar from both. There are two issues. Firstly, the structured (step by step) consultancy process should not be a determining factor in deciding whether a HR professional is a consultant or not. Secondly, the lengthy process adopted by external consultants only exists to compensate for the lack of knowledge and relationship with the client. Organisations have recently begun to realise the potential of using HR professionals for consultancy assignments, as Armstrong (1994: p.viii) stated: 8 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S Schuler and Jackson (1987) suggest that HRM is primarily about integration and adaptation. Its concern is to ensure that: (i) HRM is fully integrated with the strategy and the strategic needs of the organisation; (ii) HR policies are coherent both across policy areas and across hierarchies; and, (iii) HR practices are adjusted, accepted, and used by line managers and employees as part of their daily work. Similar views have been expressed by various other authors in this area (Wright and McMahan, 1992:p116; Mabey et al, 2000:p16; Hales, 1994:p51). Although there are a range of models to demonstrate the importance of HR managers as professionals (discussed further in Hussain, 2002), the researchers have suggest two for further analysis - (1) McKinsey’s 7S’s model and (2) Wright and McMahan’s strategic model, as they show the integrative features of HRM clearly. Firstly, McKinsey provides a strategic approach to HRM, which consists of seven interrelated features. These seven features are inter-related and have to be considered jointly to achieve a better integration between HR practice and organisational strategy. These key features are interlinked and a HRM department needs to focus on all these to yield better efficiency, flexibility, quality and control in the strategic aspects of HRM. Secondly, Wright and McMahan’s (1992) framework that consists of theoretical influences adopting (1) the resources-based view aims to explain how to achieve competitive advantage through allocation of the organisation resources, organisational culture, and achieving core competencies. For example, resources could be used to design a new staff appraisal system in order to build their core competence. (2) The behavioural view is based on contingency theory that aims to explain practices designed to control and influence attitudes and behaviours. It shows the ‘instrumentality’ of such practices in achieving strategic objectives. (3) The cybernetics systems view aims to explain the acceptance and rejection of practices resulting from feedback on contributions to strategy, where existing ways of doing things such as training may be revamped to achieve the objectives. (4) The agency/ transaction costs view aims to explain why organisational use control mechanisms, such as performance evaluation and reward systems. In the absence of performance review systems linked to reward systems, strategies may be difficult to pursue. (5) The resource dependence and power theories view aims to explain practices that are followed due to changes in the political atmosphere such as legislation, unionisation, and control of resources and expectations of social responsibility. (6) Finally, the institutional theory view aims to explain that practices, because of informal reasons and inertia rather than being planned systematically. Thirdly, according to Mabey et al (2000) and Hendry and Pettigrew (1990) the idea of HRM has been around for sometime and it goes back to the writings of Drucker (1954) who realised that well-trained and co-operative workforce was required for the well being of the organisation and its economic development. HRM advocates a close, two-way relationship between organisational strategy and HR practice through use of HRM strategy (Beaumont, 1992: p40). Hendry and Pettigrew (1990) argue that the strategic aspect of HRM consists of four key elements: planning, coherent design management of HR systems, mapping activities and policies to (HR and Organisational) strategies and seeing organisational workers as strategic resource. There are four features associated with HRM: integration of HR practice with organisational strategy, HR responsibilities passed onto line management from HR management; shift from managementtrade union relations to management-employee relations and seeing organisational workers as strategic resources (Sisson, 1989). HRM related changes are aimed at achieving efficiency, effectiveness, performance, quality (ESRC, 1997) and workforce flexibility (Atkinson, 1985). Other initiatives such as re-engineering (Hammer and Champy, 1992) downsizing are also included. It also deals with the external pressures such as demand, innovation and efficiency risks (Child, 1987) as opposed to being a device for controlling the workforce. 2.5 Professionalism vs HR Specialism As far as professionalism of HR manager is concerned several HR writers have written on this, for example, Armstrong (1984) defined profession as: “skill based on theoretical knowledge, the provision of training and education, a test of competence of members administered by a professional body; a formal professional organisation which has the power to regulate entry to the profession; and a professional code of conduct” p27. Furthermore, several years ago CIPD (then IPD) claimed its members were professional as they: “provide specialist professional knowledge, 9 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S advice and support in order to make an effective use of human resources” (p2, CIPD Rules and Regulations Book). Both Armstrong’s (1984) and CIPD’s definition of HR manager are consistent with the Inventory model of professionalism that places emphases on knowledge, training and experience. These are basic requirements for a HR manager, as the chairman of British Rail Sir Peter Parker in his praise to HR managers said that: “I am ardent advocate of professionalism in personnel management” (Personnel Management September, 1993:p20) There are various theories of professionalism that could be used to evaluate the role of HR managers for its professionalism and in seeing the importance of HRIS in helping HR managers to maintain and enhance their professional image (Hussain, 2002). We have chosen trait and conflict theories for analysis, which are shown in table 3 below. Overall professionalism is associated with having a high degree of intelligence that is proved through relevant qualifications and training. Two writers provide views on the image of professionals in society. Firstly McKinlay (1973) states: “The degree of control they exercise over their specialised and indeed knowledge...the level of public acceptance and support of professionals”. Secondly Johnson (1972) writes: “professionals - the ‘technocrats’, ‘expert’, ‘organisational man’, ‘manager’, have each in turn been seen as at least populating the corridors of power” p9. Professionalism is also associated with speciality, expertise, autonomy, authority and legitimacy. Johnson (1972) views that autonomy as important in achieving professionalism recognition and in distinguishing professionals from non-professionals. Overall professionals have authority over non-professional occupations and ordinary members of the public. The development of HRIS has had a major impact on HR managers and they can utilise HRIS to work differently, perhaps more efficiently. But at the same time organisational management and line management are becoming aware that automation of HR functions can be achieved. So can HR managers continue to see an increase in their status or have they hit a fork in the road? The use of HRIS increases the information base of HR managers and allows them to perform their job roles more professionally. In fact a strategic use of HRIS enables them to make more informed decisions and judgements. This would hopefully enable them to increase their personal recognition within their organisations. 3) RESEARCH METHODS 3.1) Research Strategy A positivist approach involving structured questionnaire was used due to the wide number of responses required within a limited time period. This involved a wide number of organisations situated all over the UK. The questionnaires were specific and structured to obtain the data about the role of HRIS. The evidence also tested the operationalisation of issues discovered in the literature. In this survey (conducted by one of us - ZH), 50 questionnaires were sent out to HR managers or those higher than HR managers; and 16 questionnaires were returned (34%). Questionnaire format guidelines outlined by Gill and Johnson (1991: p85) were followed. The format of the questionnaire was chosen based on the research objectives and the findings from the literature search. Question categories provided by Baxter et al (1996:p161) were used. Particular attention was paid to the wording and phraseology of questions, to ensure a fair and appropriate response. The questions mainly used multiple choice typology that analysed and linked back to the existing literature to test the historical evolution of job roles, recognition of HRM managers status and the use of HRIS to aid strategic decision making TABLE 3: THEORIES OF PROFESSIONALISM Theory Trait Theory Conflict Theory Central principles Predominant Writers Functionalist / Weberian / Marxist Skills based on theoretical knowledge. McKinlay Provisions of training and education. (1973) Adherence to a professional code of conduct. Class related positions and barriers to entry. Market closure and monopolisation. Education and training as a ritual. Set of interaction with a personal circle of family and acquaintance. Conformity to person oriented symbols. Collins (1975/87) Torstendhl and Burrage (1990) / / 10 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S Secondly, the fieldwork involved piloting the questionnaire on colleagues and students to gain their views on its usability and the amount of time required in completing it. Several minor corrections were made. To ensure a better response, a number of steps were taken initially in designing the questionnaire: attaching a covering letter, keeping the questions simple and short, attaching a prepaid envelope and phoning to confirm the respondent was a HR manager. Finally, the confidentiality of the respondents was assured by eliminating the names and addresses of the respondents unless they chose to provide them. Thirdly, the data was aggregated and analysed using Microsoft Excel. Attempts were made to keep illustrations simple to assist the researchers to make relevant sense of the responses. The respondents were given about two weeks to return the questionnaire. The findings were written up and analysed. The results were then linked back to the literature, where appropriate, in order to test current literature. The use of questionnaire had several advantages and disadvantages (Bell and Newby, 1977,p150152; Oppenheim, 1966). In order to overcome the disadvantages associated with questionnaires semi-structured interviews and focus groups can be used and may be used in the next phase of this research. 3.2) Data Collection Questionnaire (see appendix-1) was used to ask a specific number of questions on HRIS, professionalism, HR specialisms, and the roles of HR manager, topics that are linked to the research aims and sub-research questions. 4) FINDINGS (HRIS AND HRM) 4.1 Analysis of Data 4.1.1 HRIS The responses to our questionnaire survey revealed that a majority of the respondents (94%) used HRIS or intended to use one, and just 6% respondents said s/he did not use HRIS but intended to use one. This indicated, at least as far as this survey is concerned, that HRIS are widely used and are important in day to day working of HR departments and the successful functioning of HR managers. The questionnaires were administered across UK to a variety of organisations. This concurs with IS writers (Edwards et al., 1995; Elliott and Starkings, 1998; Renkema, 2000; Laudon and Laudon, 2002) who write that the use of IS, which includes systems such as HRIS, has become widespread in most organisations and more employees and departments in all types of organisations are heavily reliant on such systems. Softworld (1996/7) also reported a rise in the use of HRIS in the UK. The use of IS in organisation can enable them to increase efficiency, effectiveness and integration. This may be one of the reasons why the responses suggest a wide use of HRIS in organisations at all levels of HR work. When asked about the level at which they were using HRIS in their daily work, the respondents stated that such systems are being used at various levels, from very operational level used in undertaking routine work to more strategic level work for making judgements. From the questionnaire the early use of HRIS were for operational levels. Recently they are being used at more strategic level as their functionality becomes more advanced. Almost all respondents who indicated that they were using some sort of HRIS and said that they were using HRIS at operational level (88% respondents), whereas 44% respondents said that they used HRIS for strategic tasks and for taking more unstructured and complex decisions. The use of HRIS has increased by more senior level HR managers, and in some cases by strategic organisational management as they work closely with HR specialists. Overall, we found that all three functions are being used by HR managers in most organisations. This is similar to the surveys by Kinnie (1992) and Ball (2000). The questionnaire explored whether the respondents used HRIS or they intended to use this in the future. In undertaking this research we generated a number of research questions (RQ) that were based on aims of this research. These RQs are: (1) to explore the role of HR managers and their use of IS in fulfilling these roles, (2) to focus on the contribution of IS in developing professional status, (3) to what extent is IS assisting HR managers to deal with the emerging roles. 11 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S FIGURE 2: QUESTION 13- QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY RESULTS The respondents were asked about the types of HRIS functionality that they used. As HRIS can be very large systems that come with many different functions, and not all organisations, at least in the past, used to purchase all the modules offered by such systems due to the expense involved. Some functionalities are more advanced than the other and allow HR managers to accomplish more strategic tasks. As figure 2 shows that nearly all types of functionality ware used by the respondents, although the use of operational level functions was a little more predominant, such as data banking and payroll. This is because most HRIS were initially used by organisations at operational level, and it was not until recently that a more strategic use of such systems is being made. The respondents were asked as to how important HRIS are or could be in allowing them to perform their jobs. This question asked respondents to evaluate the usefulness of HRIS in their daily work. The definitions of system usefulness differs for different individuals. The replies overall suggests that respondents do view HRIS as very important in allowing them to perform their jobs more professionally. The respondents provided the following reasons: HRIS were very important in achieving greater professional recognition (50% respondents), HRIS were important in helping them to provide up to minute information to management (25% respondents), important for providing HR information to line management and 13% respondents did not comment about how it would allow them to work more professionally. Only 6% said HRIS were ‘fairly’ important in performing their duties more professionally and did not see it as too important. 12 Furthermore respondents were asked as to how they could make a strategic use of HRIS. A question asked the respondents to refer to their experience and expertise to imagine as to how they can use it effectively. Because the use of HRIS depends on whether users believe that they can or not make an effective use of it. The responses given by respondents were that it did or could: (1) help to shift the existing ways of organisational working, (2) provide a 24 hour service to the organisation and provide access to HR related information at any time needed, (3) reduce the repetition of information and providing faster information, and (4) provide status and reports on the latest aspects of HR. 38% of the respondents did not reply or comment on this question. Perhaps due to the open-ended answer required or due to lack of imagination, or due to the difficulty involved in the response required. We cannot assume this because of low responses. But overall the responses to this question suggest that HRIS can and are being used at strategic level to enable organisations to make the best use of their human resources. The respondents were asked how they or their organisation could deploy HRIS to yield increased value. This question was asked to envisage the future use of HRIS in their organisations. The following responses were received: 38% respondents said that more routine use of HRIS will be made in their organisations, 50% respondents said that HRIS would be used to make medium level decisions and in determining the policy, and 56% respondents said the HRIS would be used even more strategically and in long range planning. W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S This response is consistent with IS writers, such as Edwards et al (1995) and Laudon and Laudon (2002) who write that IS is being used at strategic levels to help the user to plan, make more informed decisions and make long term predictions. HRIS has been part of evolutionary changes in HR Management. In using HRIS, HR managers can learn HRIS skills as well as retaining their traditional and basic skills needed to become HR professionals. This is the reason why the Personnel Management Today (1/6/93:p4) reported that information technology should be brought to the top of the training agenda. They believe that this should be acknowledged by the government, and it seems as though since 1993 this has already begun to happen. 4.1.2 Human Resource Management (HRM) The response to our questions revealed that HR managers are autonomous and independent to advice and guide strategic management for which they are regarded as professionals. The responses also suggest that HR managers believed that were professionals because they were CIPD certified, held relevant and CIPD recognised HRM qualifications and were relevantly trained. The questionnaire asked respondents to evaluate and envisage the future of their profession since the role of HR professional has been changing constantly. This is coupled with wider changes to organisations in current times, so the nature of their work, their professional recognition and even their use of IS would depend on the proposed changes to their jobs. Also the perceived importance and non-importance of HR profession would have an impact on the system use by HR managers. Their response suggested that their role was becoming more important in the future. (With 44% saying that it has become more strategic and some of these respondents believed that this was due to the existence of CIPD). The expectations of employers that HRM Managers have CIPD qualifications, although they believed that there were no legal or statuary requirements to hold any specific qualifications to practice, 19% respondents stated that it was simply becoming more important. Others replied that they and their profession were becoming more important because, they were becoming internal/external consultants. This is consistent with the views of HR consultancy writers (Schein, 1987; Nees and Greiner, 1985; Armstrong, 1994; Clark, 1995. So they said that their profession was becoming more important, at least in these organisations, and they were becoming more generalists or specialists. Finally, 19% respondents said that despite their profession becoming more important there will be a need for IS/IT skills in on-line working, skills in quantitative techniques to overcome the commonly held perceptions of HR professionals as not related to business objectives. The responses suggest that HR managers had worked in different job roles in different types of organisations for varying amount of time supporting the evidence by Farnham (1985). The respondents were asked to indicate which HR posts they held. It was strategy of the researcher not to include the respondents who were not HR managers or their associates. But all respondents who completed questionnaires were HR specialists, although in several hierarchical ranks. We aimed to obtain responses from those workers who worked in the higher ranks of HR. The responses show that 31% respondents worked as HR directors, 50% respondents worked as HR managers, others worked as HR advisors and officers. The titles of the respondents and their duties differ slightly, hence were categorised by us. This is consistent with the writing of HR writers like Farnham (1985) who emphasises those HR managers hold a variety of HR job titles as they come from diverse backgrounds and work in a variety of different situations under different titles of different levels of professional recognition. Their job title and the degree of recognition by their organisation influenced their HRIS responsibilities in different ways to like them in this daily work. 4.1.3 Types of HR Specialists/Managers A mojority of HR managers responding had an advisory responsibilities as a their main role, followed by service and functional responsibilities. Figure 3 shows that the role of HR manager is mainly advisory that is largely strategic and requires independent judgement and higher-level thinking. It also suggests that the use of HRIS would benefit them and would free their time for more strategic tasks and eliminate any routine tasks. They could also exploit more advanced functionality of HRIS to allow them to accomplish more strategic tasks. These results are consistent with Cole (1997) who argues that HR managers are central to any organisation and provides key HR related advice to various organisational stakeholders. 13 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S FIGURE 3: TYPES OF ROLES 1st choice Advisory (policy advice, HR set up and other HR issues) Service (providing service in the area of HR set up and issues) Functional (communication and interpretation of HR policy, procedures to all from top management) 56 44 25 2nd choice 25 13 6 3rd choice 0 13 31 The evidence from the questionnaire suggests that the respondents were in advisory and senior roles in their organisations. They suggested that HRIS can help a HR manager in following ways: The use of HRIS for operational and strategic work frees HR managers to concentrate on their advisory role. Use the data generated by HRIS to provide expert advice. Having up to minute information on HR. Electronic monitoring of various HR policies, such as time and attendance. 4.1.4 New emerging role of HR specialist: HR consultancy The new emerging strategic roles of HR specialists, requires HR managers to be more like internal/external consultants and provide services and organisational planning at strategic levels. The questionnaire asked the respondents whether and which type of change had occurred to their role as a HR specialists. The results confirmed that most respondents thought they had become internal consultants to their organisation with roles, that required them to have a high degree of HR and general business skills, and make higher level judgements about the organisation. This role also requires expertise in specific HR areas. The second choice suggested that they are working strategically to create a greater integration and synergy between the HR and organisational level strategies. This required a high degree of organisational and external knowledge on the part HR specialists. It also involved them working more closely with strategic and line management of the organisation, and finding out the needs of the business before 14 making appropriates changes to HR of the organisation. These responses are consistent with the writings of Armstrong (1994), Schein (1987), Clark (1995) and Greer (1995) that the role of HR managers is changing and that it is becoming more strategic. Hence demands placed on them are growing, for example they are becoming strategic advisors and consultants. Consequently, HR professionals, especially, those who occupy higher positions are becoming more like internal/external organisational HR consultants, as the responses suggest and consistent with the writers on typical consultant roles (Schein, 1987; Clark, 1995; Nees and Greiner, 1987) by assigning particular image and roles to consultants. The type of consultant is usually described using a metaphor (Clark, 1995), for example doctor-patient type of consultant (Schein, 1987). The responses suggests that HR managers performed all three of Schein’s roles, although the process type of consultancy is more predominant and the doctor-patient type of consultancy was used least. For example, the questionnaire asked which type of consultancy model was adopted. In this question they were given 3 generic consultancy roles taken from Schein (1987), discussed earlier. These results revealed that 69% respondents provided process consultancy to the organisation that involves working jointly with organisational groups to resolve issues and improve the organisational running. Results show that 56% respondents offered expert consultancy that involves providing managers expert advice to strategic organisational management and diagnosing problems. Only 25% respondents said the doctor-patient consultancy role that involves re/examining HR policies and procedures and W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S usually changes to them. Partly because they are working as HR managers and the HR policies and procedures as routine matter and aspects of their jobs. Overall these responses suggest that the strategic role of HR managers has become more important and it requires more personal and riskier judgement, advice and knowledge. Finally in providing good consultancy and advice it is important for HR manager to have up-to-date and accurate information. HRIS can make this possible for them. 4.1.5 New emerging role of HR specialist: Strategy and planning The respondents were asked whether their roles as HR managers have changed and have become more strategic within their organisation. This question was asked because the job of HR manager has become more important depending on the length of their service, the amount of organisational experience, quality of advice and the need for HR service for the organisation. Figure 4 shows that 13% of respondents believed that their roles had not changed and did not provide any comments. Those who believed there has been a change gave the following reasons: simply becoming more important (25% respondents), due to the link with the strategic business plan (13% respondents), HR techniques underpinning organisational working and pro-HR and general organisational ways of working (19% respondents) and general development and planning (6% respondents) and 19% respondents did not have a comment but thought that their role was becoming more important in their organisation. This shows that as the time passes HR managers may become more important, as they will play a more strategic role. Hence the use of HRIS in using its advanced function will be crucial. This is consistent with McKinsey’s 7S’s model that HR managers play a strategic role in organisations where they create a bridge between organisational plans and strategy. They then align the HR practice and polices in line with the organisational practice. They also update and alter the HR practice as and when wider organisational policy changes. Similar views about HR managers are also provided by other writers such as Wright and McMahan (1992) and Mabey et al (2000). 4.1.6 Professionalism vs HR Specialism Overall professionalism is associated with having a high degree intelligence that is proved through relevant qualifications and training. In fact the responses to the questionnaire demonstrates HR managers believed that they were professionals as they hold relevant qualifications, training and are members of CIPD. Therefore professionals generally receive respect in return for their services to the society. For example, the response to one of the questions suggests that all organisations believed that HR managers were professionals as they offered valuable expertise and service. The questionnaire respondents were asked whether they saw themselves as professionals and their reasons identifying themselves as professionals. Because some HR professionals despite their professional recognition by their organisations may or may not, see themselves as professionals. Their view would depend on their treatment by their organisations or their non-HR colleagues, the complexity of their tasks that they perform, and, whether they hold professionrelated qualifications or being trained in it. The results of this question revealed that a majority of the respondents did see themselves as HR professionals, with a very small minority not seeing themselves as professionals. So those who did not see themselves as professionals did not because they believed that they did not have the necessary profession-related qualifications or were only managing several HR-related activities. But theoretically even if they were only managing a few of the ‘strategic’ HR tasks they could be given FIGURE 4: ROLES OF HR RESPONDENTS 15 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S a professional status if they were performing them (Armstrong, 1984). However, a majority of respondents did think they were professionals because: they were CIPD qualified, were appropriately trained, were CIPD members, had worked in the profession for a long time, or gave other reasons. This is consistent with the theoretical view (the Trait and Conflict models on the importance of: the membership of professional body in achieving a professional status, having relevant qualifications, being trained and having served in the field for a considerable amount of time. It is important to note that in order to maintain their professional self-image most HR managers would attempt to use HRIS in particular at strategic level, to make sure that they perform to their highest level, at least in the view of their organisational management. The development of HRIS has had a major impact on HR managers and they can utilise HRIS to work differently, perhaps more efficiently. But at the same time organisational management and line management are becoming aware that automation of HR functions can be achieved. So can HR managers continue to see an increase in their status or have they hit a fork in the road? The use of HRIS increases the information base of HR managers and allows them to perform their job roles more professionally. In fact a strategic use of HRIS enables them to make more informed decisions and judgements. This would hopefully enable them to increase their personal recognition within their organisations. 5) CONCLUSIONS Alternatively, the use of HRIS is leading to many changes in the workings of HR managers, such learning new technical skills and focus on the flow of HR information in their departments and organisations. This research focused on the role of HRIS in assisting HR managers to perform their roles more professionally. It looked at the impact of HRIS on HR managers’ role - both traditional and new emerging roles. The results revealed that HRIS were playing an important role in helping HR Managers. Most were using HRIS, at least, for operational level tasks and some were using it for strategic level tasks. The strategic level use of HRIS was smaller. The respondents generally believed that HRIS were important in allowing them to perform their work more efficiently, effectively and professionally in their organisations. This confirms that HRIS are vital in helping HR managers to meet the ever-increasing demands on their job and quality of service. 16 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S REFERENCES Armstrong M (1984), A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice, 2nd edition, Kogan Page Ltd. Cites within this book are: Guest and Horwood (1981). Armstrong M (1994), Using the HR Consultant: Achieving results, adding values, IPM. Atkinson J (1985), Flexibility: Planning for an uncertain future, Manpower Policy and Practice, (1), Summer. Avison D and Shah H (1997), The Information Systems Development Life Cycle: A First Course in Information Systems, McGraw-Hill. Ball K (2000), The use of human resource management systems: a survey, Personnel Review, 30(6),pp.677-693. Baxter L, Hughes C and Tight M (1996), How to Research, Open University Press. Beaumont PB (1992), The US Human Resource Management Literature, in G.Salaman et al (eds), Human Resource Strategies, Sage. 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Cole GA (1997), Personnel Management, 4th Edition, Letts Educational. Collins R (1987), Comments on Frame work for the Listing of Professions, Riverside. Drucker PF (1954), The practice of Management, Harper. Edwards C, Ward J and Bytheway A (1995), The Essence of Information Systems, Prentice Hall. Edward (1996). Softworld Report (1996), Human Resource Management Software, Conspectus, PMP (UK) Ltd. Elliott G and Starkings S (1998), Business Information Technology: Systems, Theory and Practice, Addison Wesley Longman Limited. English Oxford Dictionary (1994), Clarendon Press. ESRC Centre for Organisation and Innovation (1997), The Use and Effectiveness of Modern Manufacturing Techniques in the UK, Institute of Work Psychology, University of Sheffield. Farnham D (1985), Personnel in Context, 3rd edition, IPM (cites in this book: Lupton, 1978). Gallagher (1997). Softworld Report (1997), Human Resource Management Software, Conspectus, PMP (UK) Ltd. Gallagher M (1986), Computers in Personnel Management, Heinemann. Gill J and Johnson P (1991), Research Methods for Managers, Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd. Greer CR (1995), Strategy and Human Resources: A General Managerial Perspective, Prentice Hall. Hales C (1994), Internal Marketing as an Approach to Human Resource Management, Journal of Management Studies, 5(1), pp.50-71. Hammer M and Champy J (1992), Reengineering the Corporation, HarperCollins. 17 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S Hendry C and Pettigrew A (1990), Human Resource Management: An agenda for the 1990s, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 1(1), pp.17-43. Husleid, M. (1995) `The Impact of HRM Practices on Turnover, Productivity and Corporate Performance`, Academy of Management Journal, Vol.38, pp635-672. Hussain ZI (2002), An investigation into the Strategic Use of Personnel Management Information Systems (PMIS) by Human Resource (HR) Managers, Masters Thesis, Sheffield Hallam University, UK. Johnson G and Scholes K (1993), Exploring Corporate Strategy: Texts and Cases, 3rd edition, Prentice-Hall. Johnson TJ (1972), Profession and Power, Macmillan Press. Cites in this book: Hughes (1975), Flexner (1915). Kinnie N and Arthurs A (1996) Personnel Review found little potential development of computers in the HR function (Personnel Specialists: Advanced use of IT-Evidence and explanations, PR, 25(3), pp.3-19. Laudon KC and Laudon JP (2002), Management Information Systems: Managing the Digital Firm, 7th edition, Prentice Hall. Liff S (1997), Constructing HR Information Systems, Human Resource Management Journal, 7(2), pp.18-31. Lucey T (1997), Management Information Systems, Letts Educational. Mabey C, Salaman G and Storey J (2000), Human Resource Management: A Strategic Introduction, 2nd edition, Blackwell Business. Markham C (1998), The Top Consultant: Developing Your Skills For Greater Effectiveness, Kogan Page Ltd. McKinlay JB (1973), Towards the Proletarianisation of Physician, in Charles Derber (ed), Professionals as Workers, Hall and Company Ltd. Miles R and Snow C (1986), Network organisations: new forms, California Management Review, 28(3), pp.62-73. 18 Nees DB and Greiner LE (1985), Seeing Behind the Look-a-Like Consultants, Organisational Dynamics, winter, pp.77-87. Norman and Edwards (1997). Softworld Report (1997), Human Resource Management Software, Conspectus, PMP (UK) Ltd. Oppenheim AN (1966), Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement, Heinemann. Peters T and Waterman RH (1982), In Search of Excellence, Harper and Row. Pettigrew AM and Whipp R (1991), Managing change for competitive success, Blackwell. Rees (1996). Softworld Report (1996), Human Resource Management Software, Conspectus, PMP (UK) Ltd. Renkema TJW (2000), The IT Value Quest: How to capture the business value of IT-based Infrastructure, John Wiley. Robinson D (1999), HR Information Systems Audit, Cambridge Strategy Publications. Robson W (1997), Strategic Management and Information Systems: An integrated approach, Prentice Hall. Schein EH (1987), Process Consultation, 1&2, Addison Wesley. Schuler RS and Jackson SE (1987), Linking competitive Strategies with Human Resource Management Practices, Academy of Management Executive, 1(3), pp.207-19. Shipton, J. and McAuley, J. (1991) `Issues of Power and Marginality in Personnel`, Human Resource Management Journal, Vol.4, No.1, pp-13. Sisson K (1989), Personnel Management in transition, in K.Sission (ed), Personnel Management in Britain, Blackwell. Torstendahl R and Burrage M (1990), Professions in Theory and History, Sage publications Ltd. Cites within this book are: Collins R: (1975/1986); F.Parkin (1977); Hughes (1965). Tyson, S. and Fell, A. (1986) Evaluating the Personnel Function, London: Pitman. W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S Tyson S and York A (1989), Personnel Management, Heinemann Prof. Publication Ltd. Weber M (1949), The methodology of the social sciences, Free Press. Wright PM and McMahan GC (1992), Theoretical Perspective for Strategic Human Resource Management, Journal of Management, 18(2), pp.299. 19 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S Appendix-1 Questionnaire Role of Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) Please answer the questions below: Part 1:Respondent information 1) What is your job role or title? __________________________________________ 2) What type of organisation do you work for? Please tick Private Small/medium Large Public Small/medium Large 3) How long have you worked as a HR specialist? ________ Part 2: HR Professionalism 4) Do you view yourself as professional and why? Please tick and give reasons No why_______________________________________________ Yes because I: am trained in HRM have a HR specific under/postgraduate degree. am a member of CIPD have worked as a HR specialist for a very long time. other; please specify. 5) Does your organisation see you as a professional? Please tick and give reasons No why_______________________________________________ Yes why_______________________________________________ 6) Do you regard yourself as a professional just like traditional professionals like lawyers, doctors, lecturers and dentists do? Please tick and give reasons No why_______________________________________________ Yes why_______________________________________________ 7) How do you see (from your experience or through reading in the literature) the future of your profession? Part 3: HR specialism 8) In which of the following categories do your main work duties fall into? Please number them in the order of priority. Advisory (policy advice, HR set up and other HR issues) Service (providing service in the area of HR set up and issues) Functional (communication and interpretation of HR policy, procedures to all from top management) 9) How has your role changed over the years? Please tick one or more of the choices It has not changed in anyway. It has become more specialised in one or fewer aspects of the HRM. It has become more general different aspects of the HRM. It has become more like an internal consultant. (please answer 9A question to follow) It has changed to bring about more integration between the organisational and HR strategies and ways of working. 20 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S 9A) What sort of internal HR consultancy do you offer? Please tick Expert consultancy - providing expertise, information and diagnosing issues and making changes to them. Doctor-patient consultancy - examining HR policies and procedures and prescribing changes as necessary. Process consultancy - working jointly with organisational groups to resolve issues. 10) Do you believe that your role has become more strategic in your organisation and how? Reason (s) No Yes HR Information Systems (HRIS) 11) Do you currently use HR information system(s) (HRIS) or intend to use one? No, we do not use one nor we want to use one in the future. Yes, we currently use one or intend to use one. No, but we are intending to use one. 12) At what level do you use HRIS? At operational level to undertake daily operational level work Use by knowledge workers for planning. Use by top management for long term planning and unstructured decision making. 13) Which functionality does your HRIS have? Please list them below 14) How important are/could be HRIS in helping you to perform your job more professionally? 15) How do/can you make a strategic use of HRIS? Please describe using a list or a short narrative 16) What is your view of further deployment of HRIS in your organisation for work and decision making? More routine operational level use. More medium level decision making or policy determination role. Strategic us eof HRIS for long term planning. 21 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S Part 4: General 17) Do you have any other comments about the strategic use if HRIS by HR managers or HR departments? 18) If you would like a copy of the results then please provide your title (and name if you wish) address and email below: Title and/or name: ________________________________________________ Address: ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________ Postcode________________ 22 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S LIST OF WORKING PAPER TITLES 2004 04/07 – Zahid Hussain & Peter Prowse Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) as Means of Fulfilling Job Roles More Professionally for Human Resource (HR) Managers 04/05 – Stephanie Hussels & Damian Ward Cost Efficiency and Total Factor Productivity in the European Life Insurance Industry: The Development of the German Life Insurance Industry Over the Years 1991-2002 04/04 – Axèle Giroud & Hafiz Mirza Intra-firm Technology Transfer: The Case of Japanese Manufacturing Firms in Asia 04/03 – David Spicer The Impact of Approaches to Learning and Cognition on Academic Performance in Business and Management 04/02 – Hafiz Mirza & Axèle Giroud Regionalisation, Foreign Direct Investment and Poverty Reduction: The Case of ASEAN 04/01 – Gretchen Larsen & Veronica George The Social Construction of Destination Image – A New Zealand Film Example 2003 03/35 – Alexander T Mohr & Jonas F Puck Asymmetries in Partner Firms’ Perception of Key Variables and the Performance of International Joint Ventures 03/34 – Hafiz Mirza & Axèle Giroud The Impact of Foreign Direct Investment on the Economic Development of ASEAN Economies: A Preliminary Analysis 03/33 – Raissa Rossiter Networks, Collaboration and the Internationalisation of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises: An Interdisciplinary Perspective on the Network Approach – Part 1 03/32 – Stephanie Hussels, Damian Ward & Ralf Zurbruegg How Do You Stimulate Demand For Insurance? 03/31 – Donal Flynn & Zahid I Hussain A Qualitative Approach to Investigating the Behavioural Definitions of the Four-Paradigm Theory of Information Systems Development 03/30 – Alexander T Mohr & Simone Klein Adjustment V. Satisfaction – An Analysis of American Expatriate Spouses in Germany 03/29 – David Spicer & Eugene Sadler-Smith Organisational Learning in Smaller Manufacturing Firms 03/28 – Alex Mohr & Markus Kittler Foreign Partner Assignment Policy & Trust in IJVs 03/27 – Avinandan Mukherjee & Rahul Roy Dynamics of Brand Value Management of Entertainment Products – the Case of a Television Game Show 03/26 – Professor Andrew Taylor Computer-Mediated Knowledge Sharing and Individual User Difference: An Exploratory Study 03/25 – Dr Axèle Giroud TNCs Intra- and Inter-firms' Networks: The Case of the ASEAN Region 03/24 – Alexander T Mohr & Jonas F Puck Exploring the Determinants of the Trust-Control-Relationship in International Joint Ventures 03/23 – Scott R Colwell & Sandra Hogarth-Scott The Effect of Consumer Perception of Service Provider Opportunism on Relationship Continuance Behaviour: An Empirical Study in Financial Services 03/22 – Kathryn Watson & Sandra Hogarth-Scott Understanding the Influence of Constraints to International Entrepreneurship in Small and Medium-Sized Export Companie 03/21 – Dr A M Ahmed & Professor M Zairi The AEQL Framework Implementation: American Express Case Study 03/20 – Dr K J Bomtaia, Professor M Zairi & Dr A M Ahmed Pennsylvania State University Case Study: A Benchmarking Exercise in Higher Education 03/19 – Alexander T Mohr & Jonas F Puck Inter-Sender Role Conflicts, General Manager Satisfaction and Joint Venture Performance in Indian-German Joint Ventures 03/18 – Mike Tayles & Colin Drury Profiting from Profitability Analysis in UK Companies? 03/17 – Dr Naser Al-Omaim, Professor Mohamed Zairi & Dr Abdel Moneim Ahmed Generic Framework for TQM Implementation with Saudi Context: An Empirical Study 03/16 – AM Al-Saud, Dr AM Ahmed & Professor KE Woodward Global Benchmarking of the Thrid Generation Telecommunication System: Lessons Learned from Sweden Case Study 03/15 – Shelley L MacDougall & Richard Pike Consider Your Options: Changes to Stratetic Value During Implementation of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 03/14 – Myfanwy Trueman & Richard Pike Building Product Value by Design. How Strong Accountants/Design Relationships Can Provide a Long-Term Competitive 03/13 – Jiang Liu, Ke Peng & Shiyan Wang Time Varying Prediction of UK Asset Returns 03/12 – A M Ahmed, Professor M Zairi & S A Alwabel Global Benchmarking for Internet & E-Commerce Applications 03/11 – A M Ahmed, Professor M Zairi & Yong Hou Swot Analysis for Air China Performance and Its Experience with Quality 03/10 – Kyoko Fukukawa & Jeremy Moon A Japanese Model of Corporate Social Responsibility?: A study of online reporting 03/09 – Waleed Al-Shaqha and Mohamed Zairi The Critical Factors Requested to Implement Pharmaceutical Care in Saudit Arabian Hospitals: A Qualitative Study 03/08 – Shelly MacDougall & Richard Pike The Elusive Return on Small Business Investment in AMT: Economic Evaluation During Implementation 03/07 – Alexander T Mohr The Relationship between Inter-firm Adjustment and Performance in IJVs – the Case of German-Chinese Joint Ventures 03/06 – Belinda Dewsnap & David Jobber Re-thinking Marketing Structures in the Fast Moving Consumer Goods Sector: An Exploratory Study of UK Firms 03/05 – Mohamed Zairi & Samir Baidoun Understanding the Essentials of Total Quality Management: A Best Practice Approach – Part 2 03/04 – Deli Yang & Derek Bosworth Manchester United Versus China: The “Red Devils” Trademark Problems in China 03/03 – Mohamed Zairi & Samir Baidoun Understanding the Essentials of Total Quality Management: A Best Practice Approach – Part 1 03/02 – Alexander T Mohr The Relationship Between Trust and Control in International Joint Ventures (IJVs) – An Emprical Analysis of Sino-German Equity Joint Ventures 03/01 – Mike Tayles & Colin Drury Explicating the Design of Cost Systems 2002 02/34 – Alexander T Mohr Exploring the Performance of IJVs – A Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of the Performance of German-Chinese Joint Ventures in the People’s Republic of China 02/33 – John M T Balmer & Edmund Gray Comprehending Corporate Brands 02/32 – John M T Balmer Mixed Up Over Identities 02/31 – Zoë J Douglas & Zoe J Radnor Internal Regulatory Practices: Understanding the Cyclical Effects within the Organisation 02/30 – Barbara Myloni, Dr Anne-Wil Harzing & Professor Hafiz Mirza A Comparative Analysis of HRM Practices in Subsidiaries of MNCs and Local Companies in Greece 02/29 – Igor Filatotchev ”Going Public with Good Governance’’: Board Selection and Share Ownership in UK IPO Firms 02/28 – Axele Giroud MNEs in Emerging Economies: What Explains Knowledge Transfer to Local Suppliers 02/27 – Niron Hashai Industry Competitiveness – The Role of Regional Sharing of DistanceSensitive Inputs (The Israeli – Arab Case) 23 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S 02/26 – Niron Hashai Towards a Theory of MNEs from Small Open Economics – Static and Dynamic Perspectives 02/25 – Christopher Pass Corporate Governance and The Role of Non-Executive Directors in Large UK Companies: An Empirical Study 02/24 – Deli Yang The Development of the Intellectual Property in China 02/23 – Roger Beach Operational Factors that Influence the Successful Adoption of Internet Technology in Manufacturing 02/22 – Niron Hashai & Tamar Almor Small and Medium Sized Multinationals: The Internationalization Process of Born Global Companies 02/21 – M Webster & D M Sugden A Proposal for a Measurement Scale for Manufacturing Virtuality 02/20 – Mary S Klemm & Sarah J Kelsey Catering for a Minority? Ethnic Groups and the British Travel Industry 02/19 – Craig Johnson & David Philip Spicer The Action Learning MBA: A New Approach Management Education 02/18 – Lynda M Stansfield An Innovative Stakeholder Approach to Management Education: A Case Study 02/17 – Igor Filatotchev, Mike Wright, Klaus Uhlenbruck, Laszlo Tihanyi & Robert Hoskisson Privatization and Firm Restructuring in Transition Economies: The Effects of Governance and Organizational Capabilities 02/16 – Mike Tayles, Andrew Bramley, Neil Adshead & Janet Farr Dealing with the Management of Intellectual Capital: The Potential Role of Strategic Management Accounting 02/15 – Christopher Pass Long-Term Incentive Schemes, Executive Remuneration and Corporate Perfomance 02/14 – Nicholas J Ashill & David Jobber An Empirical Investigation of the Factors Affecting the Scope of Information Needed in a MkIS 02/13 – Bill Lovell, Dr Zoe Radnor & Dr Janet Henderson A Pragmatic Assessment of the Balanced Scorecard: An Evaluation use in a NHS Multi-Agency Setting in the UK 02/12 – Zahid Hussain & Donal Flynn Validating the Four-Paradigm Theory of Information Systems Development 02/11 – Alexander T Mohr & Simone Klein The Adjustment of American Expatriate Spouses in Germany – A Qualitative and Quantative Analysis 02/10 – Riyad Eid & Myfanwy Trueman The Adoption of The Internet for B-to-B International Marketing 02/09 – Richard Pike & Nam Cheng Trade Credit, Late Payment and Asymmetric Information 02/08 – Alison J Killingbeck & Myfanwy M Trueman Redrawing the Perceptual Map of a City 02/07 – John M T Balmer Corporate Brands: Ten Years On – What’s New? 02/06 – Dr Abdel Moniem Ahmed & Professor Mohamed Zairi Customer Satisfaction: The Driving Force for Winning Business Excellence Award 02/05 – John M T Balmer & Stephen A Greyser Managing the Multiple Identities of the Corporation 02/04 – David Philip Spicer Organizational Learning & The Development of Shared Understanding: Evidence in Two Public Sector Organizations 02/03 – Tamar Almor & Niron Hashai Configurations of International Knowledge-Intensive SMEs: Can the Eclectic Paradigm Provide a Sufficient Theoretical Framework? 02/02 – Riyad Eid, Myfanwy Trueman & Abdel Moniem Ahmed The Influence of Critical Success Factors on International Internet Marketing 02/01 – Niron Hashai The Impact of Distance Sensitivity and Economics of Scale on the Output and Exports of Israel and its Arab Neighbours 2001 01/18 – Christopher M Dent Transnational Capital, the State and Foreign Economic Policy: Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan 01/17 – David P Spicer & Eugene Sadler-Smith The General Decision Making Style Questionnaire: A Comfirmatory Analysis 01/16 – David P Spicer Expanding Experimental Learning: Linking Individual and Organisational learning, Mental Models and Cognitive Style 01/15 – E Grey & J Balmer Ethical Identity; What is it? What of it? 01/14 – Mike Talyes & Colin Drury Autopsy of a Stalling ABC System: A Case Study of Activity Based Cost Management and Performance Improvement 01/13 – N Esho, R Zurbruegg, A Kirievsky & D Ward Law and the Deminants of International Insurance Consumption 01/12 – J Andrews Coutts & Kwong C Cheug Trading Rules and Stock Returns: Some Preliminary Short Run Evidence from the Hang Seng 1985-1997 01/11 – D McKechnie & S Hogarth-Scott Linking Internal Service Encounters and Internal Transactions: Unravelling Internal Marketing Contract Workers 01/10 – M Webster & D M Sugden Operations Strategies for the Exploitation of Protected Technology: Virtual Manufacture as an Alternative to Outward licensing 01/09 – Axèle Giroud Buyer-Supplier Transfer and Country of Origin: An Empirical Analysis of FDI in Malaysia 01/08 – Damian Ward Do Independent Agents Reduce Life Insurance Companies’ Free Cash Flow? 01/07 – Daragh O’Reilly Corporate Images in ‘Jerry Maguire’: A Semiotic Analysis 01/06 – Tony Lindley & Daragh O’Reilly Brand Identity on the Arts Sector 01/05 – M Trueman, J Balmer & D O’Reilly Desperate Dome, Desperate Measures! Managing Innovation at London’s Millennium Dome 01/04 – M Trueman, M Klemm, A Giroud & T Lindley Bradford in the Premier League? A Multidisciplinary Approach to Branding and Re-positioning a City 01/03 – A Harzing Self Perpetuating Myths and Chinese Whispers 01/02 – M Webster Supply Systems Structure, Management and Performance: A Research Agenda 01/01 – A Harzing Acquisitions Versus Greenfield Investments: Exploring the Impact of the MNC’s International Strategy 2000 0031 – John Ritchie & Sue Richardson Leadership and Misleadership in Smaller Business Governance 0030 – Mary Klemm Tourism and Ethnic Minorities in Bradford: Concepts and Evidence 0029 – (not available) 0028 – (not available) 0027 – Axèle Giroud Determinant Factors of the Degree of Supply-Related Technology Transfer: A Comparative Analysis Between Asian Affiliates 0026 – A Cullen, M Webster & A Muhlemann Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems: Definitions, Functionality and the Contribution to Global Operations 0025 – B Chennoufi & M Klemm Managing Cultural Differences in a Global Environment 0024 – (not available) 0023 – Simon Best & Devashish Pujari Internet Marketing Effectiveness: An Exploratory Examination in Tourism Industry 0022 – Dr Myfanwy Tureman Divided Views, Divided Loyalties: Changing Customer Perceptions by Design 0021 – Yasar Jarrar Becoming World Class Through a Culture of Measurement 0020 – David Spicer & Eugene Sadler-Smith Cognitive Style & Decision Making 0019 – Z J Radnor & R Boaden A Test for Corporate Anorexia 24 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S 0018 – (not available) 0017 – Peter Prowse Public Service Union Recruitment Workplace Recovery or Stagnation in a Public Services Union? Evidence From a Regional Perspective 0016 – Yasar F Jarrar & Mohamed Zairi Best Practice Transfer for Future Competitiveness: A Study of Best Practices 0015 – Mike Tayles & Colin Drury Cost Systems and Profitability Analysis in UK Companies: Selected Survey Findings 0014 – B Myloni & A Harzing Transferability of Human Resource Management Practices Across Borders: A European Reflection on Greece 0013 – (not available) 0012 – Nick J Freeman Asean Investment Area: Progress and Challenges 0011 – Arvid Flagestad & Christine A Hope A Model of Strategic Success in Winter Sports Destinations: the Strategic Performance Pyramid 0010 – M Poon, R Pike & D Tjosvold Budget Participation, Goal Interdependence and Controversy: A Study of a Chinese Public Utility 0009 – Patricia C Fox, John M T Balmer & Alan Wilson Applying the Acid Test of Corporate Identity Management 0008 – N Y Ashry & W A Taylor Information Systems Requirements Analysis in Healthcare: Diffusion or Translation? 0007 – T Lindley, D O’Reilly & T Casey An Analysis of UK Television Advertisements for Alcohol 0006 – Eric Lindley & Frederick Wheeler The Learning Square: Four Domains that Impact on Strategy 0005 – K K Lim, P K Ahmed & M Zairi The Role of Sharing Knowledge in Management Initiatives 0004 – C De Mattos & S Sanderson Expected Importance of Partners’ Contributions to Alliances in Emerging Economies: A Review 0003 – A Harzing Acquisitions Versus Greenfield Investments: Both Sides of the Picture 0002 – Stuart Sanderson & Claudio De Mattos Alliance Partners’ Expectations Concerning Potential Conflicts and Implications Relative to Trust Building 0001 – A Harzing An Empirical Test and Extension of the Bartlett & Ghoshal Typology of Multinational Companies 1999 9922 – Gerry Randell & Maria del Pilar Rodriguez Managerial Ethical Behaviour 9921 – N Y Ashry & W A Taylor Requirements Analysis as Innovation Diffusion: A Proposed Requirements Analysis Strategy for the Development of an Integrated Hospital Information Support System 9920 – C Hope My Way’s The Right Way! Or, With Particular Reference to Teaching on Tourism Courses, is ‘Best Practice’ in Operations Management Dependent Upon National Culture? 9919 – A Harzing Of Bumble-Bees and Spiders: The Role of Expatriates in Controlling Foreign Subsidiaries 9918 – N Y Ashry & W A Taylor Who will take the Garbage Out? The Potential of Information Technology for Clinical Waste Management in the NHS 9917 – D O’Reilly Nice Video(?), Shame about the Scam… Paedagogical Rhetoric Meets Commercial Reality at Stew Leonard’s 9916 – A Harzing The European Monolith: Another Myth in International Management? 9915 – S MacDougall & R Pike The Influence of Capital Budgeting Implementation on Real Options: A Multiple-Case Study of New Technology Investments 9914 – C Pass, A Robinson & D Ward Performance Criteria of Corporate Option and Long-Term Incentive Plans: A Survey of 150 UK Companies 1994-1998 9913 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, D H R Price, J A Sharp & A Paterson Strategic Flexibility and Outsourcing in Global networks 9912 – H M stewart, C A Hope & A P Muhlemann The Legal Profession, Networks and Service Quality 9911 – J F Keane Design and the Management Paradigms of Self-Organisation 9910 – D O’Reilly On the Precipice of a Revolution with Hamel and Prahalad 9909 – S Cameron & D Ward Abstinence, Excess, Success?: Alcohol, Cigarettes, Wedlock & Earnings 9908 – M Klemm & J Rawel Eurocamp – Strategic Development and Internationalisation in a European Context 9907 – M Webster & R Beach Operations Network Design, Manufacturing Paradigms and the Subcontractor 9906 – D Ward Firm Behaviour and Investor Choice: A Stochastic Frontier Analysis of UK Insuramce 9905 – D Ward, C Pass & A Robinson LTIPS and the Need to Examine the Diversity of CEO Remuneration 9904 – C Smallman Knowledge Management as Risk Management: The Need for Open Corporate Governance 9903 – R Beach, D Price, A Muhlemann & J Sharp The Role of Qualitative Research in the Quest for Strategic Flexibility 9902 – N Hiley & C Smallman Predicting Corporate Failure: A Literature Review 9901 – M Trueman Designing Capital: Using Design to Enhance and Control Technological Innovation 1998 9826 – A Harzing Cross-National Industrial Mail Surveys: Why do Response Rates Differ Between Countries? 9825 – B Dewsnap and D Jobber The Sales-Marketing Interface: A Synthesis of Theoretical Perspectives and Conceptual Framework 9824 – C De Mattos Advantageous Exectutives’ Characteristics in Establishing Biotechnology Alliances in an Emerging Economy: The Case of Brazil 9823 – C A Howorth An Empirical Examination of the Usefulness of the Cash Conversion Cycle 9822 – A Harzing Who’s in Charge? An Empirical Study of Executive Staffiing Practices in Foreign Subsidiaries 9821 – N Wakabayashi & J Gill Perceptive Differences in Interorganizational Collaboration and Dynamics of Trust 9820 – C Smallman Risk Perception: State of the Art 9819 – C Smallman The Breadth of Perceived Risk: Why Integrated Risk Management of Health, Safety & Environmental Risks is only the End of the Beginning 9818 – P S Budhwar, A Popof & D Pujari Evaluating Sales Management Training at Xerox in Greece: An Exploratory Study 9817 – W A Taylor An Information-Based Perspective on Knowledge Capture in Business Processes 9816 – S Hogarth-Scott Category Management Relationships: Is it Really Trust Where Choice is Limited? 9815 – W A Taylor Sustaining Innovation in Organisations: Managing the Intangibles A Study of TQM Implementation in Northern Ireland Organisations 1991-1996 9814 – M Webster, A Muhlemann and C Alder Subcontract Manufacture in Electronics Assembly: A Survey of Industry Practice 25 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S 9813 – M J S Harry Is Object-Orientation Subject-Oriented?: Conflicting and Unresolved Philosophies in Object-Oriented Information Systems Development Methodology 9812 – J Jackson The Introduction of Japanese Continuous Improvement Practices to a Traditional British Manufacturing Site: The Case of RHP Bearings (Ferrybridge) 9811 – C De Mattos A Comparative Study Between Perceptions of British and German Executives, in the Biotechnology Sector, Relative to Potential Future Contributions of Greatest Importance to and from Transnational Alliance Partners in Emerging Economies 9810 – J Martin-Hirsch & G Wright The Cost of Customer Care – A Value Analysis of Service Delivery Approaches 9809 – J Martin-Hirsch & G Wright A Service Provider’s View of Success Factors in Alternative Service Stategies 9808 – J Martin-Hirsch & G Wright A Professional’s Evaluation of Alternative Service Delivery Regimes for Customer Care and Satisfaction 9807 – J Martin-Hirsch & G Wright A User’s Perspective of Alternative Service Delivery: A Comparative Study of the Evaluation of Service Strategies 9806 – J Martin-Hirsch & G Wright The Case for Choice in Health Care: A Comparison of Traditional and Team Midwifery in Effective Service Provision 9805 – M Woods, M Fedorkow amd M Smith Modelling the Learning Organisation 9804 – W A Taylor An Action Research Study of Knowledge Management in Process Industries 9803 – C Singleton Quantitative and Qualitative – Bridging the Gap Between Two Opposing Paradigms 9802 – R McClements & C Smallman Managing in the New Millennium: Reflections on Change, Management and the Need for Learning 9801 – P Eyre & C Smallman Euromanagement Competencies in Small and Medium Sized Enterprises: A Development Path for the New Millenium 1997 9729 – C Smallman Managerial Perceptions of Organisational Hazards and their Associated Risks 9728 – C Smallman & D Weir Managers in the Year 2000 and After: A Strategy for Development 9727 – R Platt Ensuring Effective Provision of Low Cost Housing Finance in India: An In-Depth case Analysis 9726 – (not available) 9725 – (not available) 9724 – S Estrin, V Perotin, A Robinson & N Wilson Profit-Sharing Revisited: British and French Experience Compared 9723 – (not available) 9722 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, A Paterson, D H R Price and J A Sharp Facilitating Strategic Change in Manufacturing Industry 9721 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, A Paterson, D H R Price and J A Sharp The Strategy Options in Manufacturing Industry: Propositions Based on Case Histories 9720 – A Giroud Multinational Firms Backward Linkages in Malaysia: A Comparison between European and Asian Firms in the Electrical and Electronics Sector 9719 – L Kening Foreign Direct Investment in China: Performance, Climate and Impact 9718 – H Mirza Towards a Strategy for Enhancing ASEAN’s Locational Advantages for Attracting Greater Foreign Direct Investment 9717 – B Summers & N Wilson An Empirical Study of the Demand for Trade Credit in UK Manufacturing Firms 9716 – R Butler & J Gill Reliable Knowledge and Trust in Partnership Formation 9715 – R Butler Stories and Experiments in Organisational Research 9714 – M Klemm & L Parkinson British Tour Operators: Blessing or Blight 9713 – C A Hope What Does Quality Management Mean for Tourism Companies and Organisations? 9712 – S Hogarth-Scott & P Dapiran Do Retailers and Suppliers Really have Collaborative Category Management Relationships?: Category Management Relationships in the UK and Australia 9711 – C De Mattos The Importance of Potential Future Contributions from/to Transnational Joint Venture Partners: Perception of Brazilian Managing Directors and Specialists Linked to Biotechnology 9710 – N T Ibrahim & F P Wheeler Are Malaysian Corporations Ready for Executive Information Systems? 9709 – F P Wheeler & A W Nixon Monitoring Organisational Knowledge in Use 9708 – M Tayles & C Drury Scoping Product Costing Research: A Strategy for Managing the Product Portfolio – Cost System Design 9707 – N Wilson, B Summers & C Singleton Small Business Demand for Trade Credit, Credit Rationing and the Late Payment of Commercial Debt: An Empirical Study 9706 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, A Paterson, D H R Price & J A Sharp The Management Information Systems as a Source of Flexibility: A Case Study 9705 – E Marshall Business Ethics: The Religious Dimension 9704 – M Wright, N Wilson & K Robbie The Longer Term Effects of Management-Led Buy-Outs 9703 – G Hopkinson & S Hogarth Scott Quality of Franchise Relationships: The Implications of Micro Economic Theories of Franchising 9702 – G C Hopkinson & S Hogarth-Scott Channel Conflict: Critical Incidents or Telling Tales. Methodologies Compared 9701 – K Watson, S. Hogarth-Scott & N Wilson Marketing Success Factors and Key Tasks in Small Business Development 1996 9619 – B Summers & N Wilson Trade Credit Management and the Decision to use Factoring: An Empirical Study 9618 – M Hiley & H Mirza The Economic Prospects of ASEAN : The Role of AFTA in the Future Development of the Region 9617 – A Brown Prospects for Japanese Foreign Direct Investment in Thailand 9616 – H Mirza, K H Wee & F Bartels The Expansion Strategies of Triad Corporations in East Asia 9615 – M Demirbag & H Mirza Inter-Partner Reliance, Exchange of Resources & Partners’ Influence on J’V’s Strategy 9614 – R H Pike & N S Cheng Motives for Investing in Accounts Receivable: Theory and Evidence 9613 - R H Pike & N S Cheng Business Trade Credit Management: Experience of Large UK Firms 9612 – R Elliott, S Eccles & K Gournay Man Management? Women and the Use of Debt to Control Personal Relationships 9611 – R Elliott, S Eccles & K Gournay Social Support, Personal Relationships & Addictive Consumption 9610 – M Uncles & A Manaresi Relationships Among Retail Franchisees and Frachisors: A Two-Country Study 9609 – S Procter Quality in Maternity Services: Perceptions of Managers, Clinicians and Consumers’ 9608 – S Hogarth-Scott & G P Dapiran Retailer-Supplier Relationships: An Integrative Framework Based on Category Management Relationships 26 W O R K I N G PA P E R S E R I E S 9607 – N Wilson, S Hogarth-Scott & K Watson Factors Contributing to Entrepreneurial Success in New Start Small Businesses 9606 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, A Paterson, D H R Price & J A Sharp The Evolutionary Development of the Concept Manufacturing Flexibility 9605 – B Summers Using Neural Networks for Credit Risk Management: The Nature of the Models Produced 9604 – P J Buckley & M Carter The Economics of Business Process Design: Motivation, Information & Coordination Within the Firm 9603 – M Carter Is the Customer Always Right? Information, Quality and Organisational Architecture 9602 – D T H Weir Why Does the Pilot Sit at the Front? And Does it Matter? 9601 – R A Rayman A Proposal for Reforming the Tax System 1995 9506 – A L Riding & B Summers Networks that Learn and Credit Evaluation 9505 – R A Rayman The Income Concept: A Flawed Ideal? 9504 – S Ali & H Mirza Market Entry Strategies in Poland: A Preliminary Report 9503 – R Beach, A P Muhlemann, A Paterson, D H.R Price & J A Sharp An Adaptive Literature Search Paradigm 9502 – A S C Ehrenberg & M Uncles Direchlet-Type Markets: a Review, Part 2: Applications & Implications 9501 – M Uncles & A S C Ehrenberg Direchlet-Type Markets: A Review, Part 1: Patterns and Theory 1994 9411 – R A Rayman The Real-Balance Effect Fallacy and The Failure of Unemployment Policy 9410 – R A Rayman The Myth of ‘Says’ Law 9409 not issued 9408 not issued 9407 not issued 9406 not issued 9405 – F Bartels & N Freeman Multinational Enterprise in Emerging Markets: International Joint Ventures in Côte D’Ivoire Vietnam 9404 – E Marshall The Single Transferable Vote – A Necessary Refinement Abstract 9403 – G R Dowling & M Uncles Customer Loyalty programs: Should Every Firm Have One? 9402 – N Wilson, A Pendleton & M Wright The impact of Employee Ownership on Employee Attitudes: Evidence from UK ESOPS 9401 – N Wilson & M J Peel Working Capital & Financial Management Practices in the Small Firm Sector 1993 9310 – R Butler, L Davies, R Pike & J Sharp Effective Investment Decision-Making: The Concept and its Determinants no longer available 9309 – A Muhlemann, D Price, M Afferson & J Sharp Manufacturing Information Systems as a Means for Improving the Quality of Production Management Decisions in Smaller Manufacturing Enterprises 9308 – F P Wheeler, R J Thomas & S H Chang Towards Effective Executive Information Systems 9307 – F P Wheeler, S H Chang & R J Thomas The Transition from an Executive Information System to Everyone’s Information System: Lessons from a Case Study 9306 – S H Chang, F P Wheeler & R J Thomas Modelling Executive Information Needs 9305 – S. Braga Rodrigues & D Hickson Success in Decision Making: Different Organisations, Differing Reasons for Success. 9304 – R J Butler, R S Turner, P D Coates, R H Pike & D H R Price Ideology, Technology and Effectiveness 9303 – R J Butler, R S Turner, P D Coates, R H Pike & D H R Price Strategy, Structure and Technology 9302 – R J Butler, R S Turner, P D Coates, R H Pike & D H R Price Competitive Strategies and New Technology 9301 – R J Butler, R S Turner, P D Coates, R H Pike & D H R Price Investing in New Technology for Competitive Advantage Copies of the above papers can be obtained by contacting the Research Programme Administrative Secretary at the address below: Bradford University School of Management Emm Lane Bradford West Yorkshire BD9 4JL Tel: 01274 234323 (mornings only) Fax: 01274 546866 27