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Volume 2, Issue 1, Fall 2001
HONG KONG FASHION INDUSTRIES IN THE NEW ECONOMY
Yi Li and Lei Yao
Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
ABSTRACT
In this paper, the sustainable competitiveness of the Hong Kong Fashion industry (textile and
clothing industry) in the new economy is investigated through a comparison study and model
simulation. We find that the competitiveness of Hong Kong will decrease without intensive
investment to develop key knowledge-based core competencies in facing intensive competition
from developing and developed countries and the threats of regional trade blocs and increased
bargaining power of overseas buyers. To capture the business opportunities and develop
sustainable competitiveness in the new economy, it is essential for the Hong Kong Textile and
Clothing industry to invest and develop knowledge-based core competencies in the areas of
product innovation, design and original brand marketing.
KEYWORDS: Hong Kong, textile and clothing industry, competitiveness, Hong Kong
fashion industry
INTRODUCTION below the world’s average of 5% [1]. In
world textile trade, the total export value of
In the last few decades, Hong Kong has textiles was US$151 billion in 1998, with
played an important role in world textile and the top ten countries accounted for 69.3% of
clothing trade. The total export value in the global export market share. The leader
world clothing trade was US$180 billion in was Germany, followed by Hong Kong,
1998, with 62.5% shared by the top ten Italy, China, Korea, Taiwan, USA, France,
exporting countries. China was the world Belgium-Luxembourg and Japan. On a
leader, accounting for 16.7% of global compound basis, total textile and clothing
export market share, followed by Hong exports from Hong Kong increased by 2.9%
Kong as the second leader with 12.3% annually between 1992 to 1998, mainly
market share, and further by Italy, US, attributed to the growth in re-exports from
Germany, Turkey, Mexico, France, UK and Mainland China. Exports to the USA
Korea. During that year, Hong Kong’s enjoyed the highest compound growth rate,
domestic export and re-export amounted to at 7.8% from 1992 to 1998, due to the
US10 billion and US$13 billion establishment of the North American Free
respectively. However, the growth of its Trade Agreement [1, 2].
total export was 2% between 1992 to 1998,
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These statistical data suggest that Hong through the Internet, which changes their
Kong’s export power has been declining purchasing behavior. Consumers become (a)
with stronger dependence on re-export. The more values conscious – looking for more
intensive competition comes from four added values; (b) more fickle – less brand
major sources: (1) domestic manufacturers royal but looking for innovative products
within the US, Western Europe and Japan, and styles; (c) demanding wide products
(2) manufacturers in extended regional trade ranges and varieties; (d) looking for
blocs, (3) manufacturers in developed Asia customized products and (e) acknowledging
Pacific Countries, such as China and South brand importance. Therefore, capability in
Korea, and (4) manufacturers from knowledge and technological innovation is
developing economies such as India. Hong becoming the key for success in the new
Kong has lost its competitiveness against economy.
developing countries in land, operating and
labor costs, government support and pricing. With the expectation of China’s entry to the
Hong Kong does not have the advantages of WTO and the trends of globalization in
countries in the extended regional trade world trade together with the arrival of the
blocs in terms of geographic location, new economy, competition among the major
cultural proximity, tariff and quota players will be intensified. There is a major
concession, as well as operating costs. concern of how to sustain competitiveness in
a more open and free business environment
To combat this situation, Hong Kong Textile and in a globally networked and knowledge
and Clothing industry players have invested intensive economy. This paper aims to
in countries in regional trade blocs and explore this issue by model simulation of the
emerging countries, and/or enhanced sustainable competitiveness of the Hong
activities to source from China and Kong fashion Textile and Clothing industry
developing countries. Few companies have against the major competing
invested in developing design and original countries/regions in terms of strategic
brands. Government investments with investment in developing core
industrial support mainly focus on competencies.
developing and sustaining the existing
strengths, particularly in developing Internet SUSTAINABLE COMPETITIVENESS
trading and sourcing capabilities for supply OF TEXTILES AND CLOTHING
chain management, global sourcing, INDUSTRY
production management, logistics and
distribution management, as well as The competitiveness of the Textile and
management of compliance issues. This is Clothing industry in a country or region is
certainly a key area for Hong Kong not only dependent on the level of core
competitiveness. However, whether competence of individual enterprises in the
investment in this area alone is sufficient to industry, but also on the integration of the
sustain the Hong Kong Textile and Clothing whole supply chain and relevant supporting
industry needs to be explored, especially in industries, as well as internal and external
the area of new economy. business environments.
In the new economy, the rules of The core competencies of individual
competition have changed with a number of enterprises are the fundamental elements for
features: (1) knowledge as the key resource; the sustainable competitiveness of an
(2) information and Internet communication industry. Prahalad and Hamel [3] pointed
as the major carrier; (3) innovation as the out that the current competitiveness of a
lead [15]. At the same time, consumers are company derived from the
able to obtain a great deal of information price/performance of existing products.
and access a large variety of products Future competitiveness derives from the
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Volume 2, Issue 1, Fall 2001
ability to build, at low cost and more labor between firms or between units of a
speedily than competitors. At the level of single firm, for achieving technological
core competence, the goal is to build world dynamic flexibility; (4) key collections of
leadership in the design and development of physical, capital, labor, and information
a particular class of product functionality. resources for the production network are
Jaridan further discussed the hierarchy of highly geographically concentrated in one or
competencies and defined the terms of a few sub-national regions of the host
resources, capabilities, competence, and countries; (5) the technological learning
core competencies [4]. He argued that each rests on the conventions of the regional
level in the hierarchy results from production system, which guide the
integration of lower level elements. Each mobilization and maintenance of resources
level encompasses a higher level of value in mutual engagement between firms. The
added to the corporation. Core competencies conventions are rooted in local political,
add the highest value since they exploit cultural and other non-economic forces,
resources and capabilities at the broadest which determine the quality of the
level across the corporation as a whole. technology districts.
Also, the higher levels in the hierarchy have
broader scope and are more difficult to The theory of core competence focuses on
achieve. the competitiveness of individual
In terms of regional competitiveness, Porter enterprises, while the theory on
[5, 6] pointed that the enduring competitive competitiveness of a nation or region
advantages in the global economy lie highlights the effects of integration and
increasingly in local things, which distant dynamic interaction across the industry,
rivals cannot match, including knowledge, relevant industries and environment (called
relationships and motivation. The modern clusters). Both theories are equally
economic map of the world is considered to important for developing an intellectual
be dominated by clusters. A cluster is understanding of the competitiveness and
defined as a geographic concentration of sustainable developments in specific areas
interconnected companies and institutions of a nation or region. Sustainable
that achieve unusual competitive success in competitiveness of an industry in a nation
a particular field. Storper [7] pointed out that or/region shall be determined by the levels
with the growth of world trade, export of competencies in individual enterprises
specialization based on specific products and the collective national/regional learning,
becomes increasingly important. Export involvement and commitment to cross
specialization is largely due to product- industry integration of their competencies.
based “absolute” technological advantages, On the basis of these theories, we developed
which are renewed through learning in a a model to describe how a hierarchy of six
variety of dynamic economies. Such export- factors (dimensions) determines the
oriented absolute advantage industries tend sustainable competitiveness of the Textile
to be organized into production and and Clothing industry in a nation or region
distribution networks combining the [16].
advantages of specialization and flexibility,
called “technology districts”. The features of As shown in Figure 1. Resources, internal
such technology districts are: (1) trade business environment and external business
specialization is achieved by obtaining environments are at the bottom level of the
absolute technological scarcity of the hierarchy. Resources are the inputs into the
products; (2) the technological scarcity is industry supply chain, including physical
gained through technological dynamism in resources such as materials, plant and
the product through continuous learning; (3) equipment, human resources such as
production networks are organized on the manpower and knowledge and technology,
basis of an elaborated shift in the division of financial resources such as capital and social
Article Designation: Scholarly Works 3 JTATM
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resources such as culture and reputation. companies and human resource management
The internal business environment is a capabilities.
variable representing the impact of the Competencies, at the third level of the
conventions rooted in local economical, hierarchy, are the cross-functional
political, cultural and other non-economic integration and co-operation of capabilities
forces on the competitiveness of the such as a set of skills and know-how
industry. This variable includes factors such resulting from interfaces and integration of
as the political environment, domestic functional capabilities in the industry. This
economy, market opportunities, taxation, variable includes factors such as
policies for private enterprises, foreign international trade and export capacities,
investment and foreign currency, capital R&D and new product development
market, labor market and physical abilities, as well as marketing and
infrastructure. The external business management abilities. The competencies of
environment is a variable indicating the an industry may consist of the core
influence of the external (international) competencies in individual enterprises. Core
trading environment on the industry, competencies of an industry, at the highest
including factors such as tariff, quotas and level of the hierarchy, are skills, abilities and
non-tariff barriers to Textile and Clothing areas of knowledge that are shared across
products. the industry as collections of competencies.
Core competencies require collective
Capabilities, at the second level of the industrial/ regional learning, involvement
hierarchy, are the abilities of an industry to and commitment to cross enterprise
exploit its resources. Capability is integration, including factors such as design
functionally based and consists of a series of culture, creativity and networking, a flexible
business processes and routines to transform production network, trading and
inputs to outputs including marketing merchandising clusters, a technology and
capabilities, production and machinery product innovation learning network,
capabilities, number of establishments of original branding and an international
marketing culture and capability.
•Design and creative clusters
•Original & international brand marketing
•Product and technology innovation network
•Flexibly production network
•Productivity 30 variables
Core Competencies •...
Core
Sustainable Competitiveness
•International trading/export
•Ability of new products development and innovation
•Enterprises management 30 variables
competences Competencies •...
•No. of establishment
•Production capability--yarn, fabric, clothing
Capabilities •Machinery--spinning, weaving, etc
•Employment--worker, engineers,manager
15 variables
•...
Competences
•Physical resources,
Resources •Human resources,
•Capital 31 variables
•Knowledge & technology
Capability External Business
•...
Environment •Tariff
3 variables
•Quota
External Business Internal Business
•No-tariff, no-quota trade barriers
Resources Environment
Internal Business •Physical infrastructure
Environment Environment •Macro-economic environment
•Taxation, capital market, foreign currency, and foreign
investment policy
•Market opportunities
•... 98 variables
Figure 1 Hierarchy of the sustainable Figure 2 Roots of competitiveness
competitiveness of an industry in a
nation/region
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A mathematical description of this model competitiveness, followed by Germany,
has been developed by Li and Yao [16]. France, Japan, the UK, Hong Kong, Italy
Figure 2 shows the structure and and China. Indonesia and Thailand are at the
specifications of the model and the number low end of the list. The reasons of the
of sub-variables in each of the dimensions, ranking can be illustrated by analyzing the
in which a total of 207 variables are strength and weakness of individual
included in the model. According to this countries/regions along the six major
model, extensive research has been carried dimensions.
to obtain relevant quantitative data and
qualitative information. Majority of the data Figure 4 shows the position of individual
are obtained from the world competitiveness countries in the dimensions of internal and
yearbook [8], Asia Pacific Market external business environments. USA has
Handbook [9], Consumer Asia 1999 [10], the best position in internal business
Consumer Europe [11]etc. for the environment. UK, Germany and France
dimensions of internal business environment have the good positions in the upper corner
and resources. For the dimensions of of the figure, showing good internal and
capabilities, competencies and core external business environments. Hong Kong
competencies, the data are obtained or has a very good internal business
estimated also from The World environment but relatively less favorable
Competitiveness Yearbook [8], Almanac of external business environment. Japan has a
China's textile industry [12], and some very good external business environment
professional institute reports [1, 2, 13,14]. and good internal business environment as
The data for individual variables are well. Italy, Korea, Poland, Turkey and
standardized. Ratings on the six dimensions, Mexico are positioned in the left upper
including internal business environment, corner of the figure with very good external
external business environment, resources, business environments but less favorable
capability, competencies and core internal business environments. Thailand,
competencies, are calculated according to Indonesia, Korea and China are positioned
the model. The values of these six at the left lower corner of the figure,
dimensions are further standardized for the showing less favorable external and internal
calculation of the overall sustainable business environments.
competitiveness with specification of
weights according to the levels of individual In Figure 5, positions in the dimensions of
variables in the competence hierarchy. The capability and resources are shown for the
overall ratings of sustainable Textile and Clothing industry of individual
competitiveness of clothing industry are countries. China has extraordinary capability
generated for fifteen countries (regions) that but relatively low resources. India has a
are the major players in the global textile similar position with relatively high
and clothing markets. capability but low resources. The USA,
Germany, Hong Kong, France and UK are
SIMULATION RESULTS AND positioned in the right lower corner of the
DISCUSSIONS figure, showing very good resources but less
strong in capability. Japan, Italy, Turkey,
Figure 3 shows the positions of the overall Korea, Mexico, Poland, Thailand and
sustainable competitiveness of the Textile Indonesia are positioned at the left lower
and Clothing industry in 15 nations / corner of the figure with weaker resources
regions. The USA Textile and Clothing and lower capability.
industry has the highest sustainable
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Volume 2 , Issue 1, Fall 2001
2.00
Sustainable Competitiveness
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
GERM FRANCE HONG KOREA TURKEY MEXICO POLAND THAILA INDON
USA JAPAN UK ITALY CHINA INDIA
ANY KONG ND ESIA
SC Rating 1.63 0.88 0.68 0.62 0.53 0.38 0.20 -0.05 -0.23 -0.47 -0.48 -0.65 -0.74 -0.99 -1.32
Country / Region
Figure 3 Sustainable competitiveness of clothing industry in the fifteen countries/regions
1.5 China
Mexico 1.0 UK 3.0
External business environment
USA
Italy Japan France Germany
0.5
Turkey
0.0 2.0
Capability
Poland
India Hong Kong
-0.5
Thailand 0 1.0 2.0 3.0
-2.0 -1.0 -1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0
Korea India
Indonesia
-1.5
Japan USA
-2.0 Turkey 0.0
Mexico France
Korea Germany
China Thailand
-2.5 Italy Hong Kong
UK
-3.0 Indonesia Poland -1.0
Internal business environment Resources
Figure 4 Internal and external business Figure 5 Capability and resources
environment
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2.0 CHINA
USA
USA
Core competence France Germany Suscomp
4.00 HONGKONG
Italy 1.0 Japan
3.00
UK Core competenct
2.00
IBE
1.00
Korea Hong Kong 0.00
0.0 -1.00
-2.00
-2.0 -1.0 China 1.0 2.0 3.0 -3.00
India 0.0 Competence EBE
Turkey
Poland Mexico
-1.0
Thailand Capability Resources
Indonesia
-2.0
Competence
Figure 6 Competence and core competence Figure 7 Comparison between USA and China
textile-clothing industry
Figure 6 shows that the positions of industry is similar but weaker in comparison
individual countries in the dimensions of with the US in the six dimensions, except
core competence and competence. The USA slightly stronger in capability.
has a superior position in the dimensions of
competence and core competence. Germany, HONG KONG FASHION INDUSTRY
France, Japan, the UK and Hong Kong are IN NEW ECONOMY
positioned at the upper right corner with
very good competence and core In order to investigate the impact of WTO
competencies. Italy and Korea are and investment in R&D, Design and
positioned at the left upper corner with very management on the sustainable
good core competencies (especially Italy) competitiveness of the Hong Kong fashion
but weaker competencies. China, India, industry, we carried out a systematic study
Turkey, Mexico, Poland, Thailand and of the scenarios of WTO conditions on
Indonesia are positioned in the left lower quota, tariff and non-tariff barriers [li]. Also,
corner, showing weakness in both we did a survey of government and industry
competencies and core competencies. investment in R&D, design and
marketing/management in the fashion
In Figure 7, the Hong Kong fashion industry industry in various countries/regions and
is compared with the USA and China in the studied the impact of these investments on
six dimensions and overall sustainable various core competencies by using the
competitiveness. The US textile and clothing model.
industry has excellent strength in the six
dimensions of internal and external business Figure 8 shows the comparison of core
environments, resources, capability, competencies across the 15
competence and core competence, as well as countries/regions in the near future on the
overall sustainable competitiveness. The basis of the current status and investments in
Chinese fashion industry is weak in the the relevant areas. The model predicts that
dimensions of business environment, the USA shall have the highest core
resources, competence and core competence, competency (Ccomp), followed by Italy,
but has much higher capability, though its France, Japan, UK, Germany, Hong Kong,
overall sustainable competitiveness is China and India. The reason for this ranking
significantly lower. The Hong Kong fashion is that the US shall have the strongest
Article Designation: Scholarly Works 7 JTATM
Volume 2, Issue 1, Fall 2001
competency in product and technology core competency in product innovation and
innovation (PID), together with excellent strong competency in design and original
strengths in design and original brand brand marketing, particularly in Asia. Hong
marketing (OIBM). Italy and France shall Kong is expected to be ranked at the 7th
still maintain the highest rankings in design place in the world and the 2nd place in Asia
and original marketing, but relevantly low in core competency, falling behind USA,
competency in material and technology Italy, France, Japan, UK, and Germany.
innovation. Japan shall maintain excellent
Design OIBM PID Ccomp
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
IA
O
Y
Y
A
D
E
Y
IA
G
K
SA
EA
N
D
AN
AL
IN
KE
C
U
AN
PA
IC
N
N
D
ES
-0.50
U
R
AN
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IN
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EX
IT
R
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KO
JA
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PO
TU
FR
ER
G
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-1.00
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-2.00
Figure 8 Change in core competency and competencies in design, original brand marketing, and product
innovation
QualityM ITsourcing MNOM HETC
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
N
SA
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EA
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-2.00
Figure 9 Change in competencies in quality management, IT-sourcing, multi-national operation, high
education for TC industry
Article Designation: Scholarly Works 8 JTATM
Volume 2, Issue 1, Fall 2001
In the areas of design and original brand design and branding. The manufacturers in
marketing, Hong Kong shall be ranked at the these countries have developed strong in-
7th position, but be very weak in product house R&D capabilities and are also
and technology innovation. On the basis of extensively in vested in and collaborate with
low investment from both government and external research and academic institutions.
industry, Hong Kong will fall behind China, Many of them have restructured operations
South Korea and India in product and with less fixed assets but use knowledge
technology innovation. based skills to develop and market their
goods. Western European countries such as
As shown in Figure 9, Hong Kong is
Italy, France and Germany maintain a
expected to maintain its strengths in quality
leading position in fashion design and
management (QualityM), International
original brand marketing. Many domestic
sourcing (ITsourcing), multi-national
manufacturers in these countries create high
operations (MNOM) and high education for
value-added products by leveraging their
the Textile and Clothing industry (HETC).
design capabilities and creating/acquiring
Comparing with the developed countries
brands, and establishing control over
such as the US, Japan and Italy, Hong Kong
distribution channels to develop competitive
shall have similar level of strengths in these
advantages in both domestic and
areas, and be even stronger than the major
international markets.
competitors in international sourcing and
multi-national operations.
The investments and participation of the
However, Hong Kong’s strength as a Hong Kong government and industry on
sourcing and trading center has been product innovation are extremely low,
challenged by neighboring developing particularly relative to its role in world
countries such as Mainland China. In fact, textile and clothing trade and the important
China and Germany have replaced Hong contribution (42%) of the Textile and
Kong as the world leader in textile and Clothing industry in domestic exports. If
clothing trade, respectively 1998. With the such a situation continues, the
development and widespread use of the competitiveness of the Hong Kong Textile
Internet e-commerce infrastructure, the and Clothing industry will be significantly
supply chain has been shortened, buyers and affected in the new economy.
suppliers are able to easily access the latest
information and communicate with each CONCLUSION
other directly. The role of geographic
sourcing centers may be replaced by virtual Through a comparative study and simulation
sourcing centers. With China’s entry to the model, we find that the sustainable
WTO, Chinese enterprises can be expected competitiveness of the Hong Kong Textile
to increase direct trading activities with and Clothing industry will decrease without
overseas buyers. Meanwhile, companies in intensive investment to develop the key
the Hong Kong Textile and Clothing knowledge-based core competencies. Hong
industry have widely experienced Kong has excellent competitive positions in
competitive threats from neighboring the external business environment, internal
countries and the increase of bargaining business environment, resources,
power from buyers. competencies and core competencies, as an
The Textile and Clothing industries in the international sourcing and trading center,
US, Japan and Western Europe have fully and multi-national operations. However, the
realized the challenges of the new economy Hong Kong Textile and Clothing industry is
and very much focused on developing facing intensive competition from (1)
sustainable competitiveness for the future in domestic manufacturers within the US,
three major areas: production innovation, Western Europe and Japan, (2)
manufacturers in extended regional trade
Article Designation: Scholarly Works 9 JTATM
Volume 2 , Issue 1, Fall 2001
blocs; (3) manufacturers in developed Asia Business Review, 1990.May-June p.79-
Pacific countries, such as China and South 91.
Korea; and (4) manufacturers from
developing economies, such as India. Hong 4. Mansour Javidan, Core Competence:
Kong has lost its competitiveness against What Does it Mean in Practice? Long
developing countries in land, operating and Range Planning, 1998.31(1), p.60-71.
labor costs, government support and pricing.
Hong Kong does not have the advantages of 5. Michael Porter., On Competition.1998
countries in the extended regional trade USA Harvard Business School Press.
blocs in terms of geographic location,
cultural proximity, tariff and quota 6. Michael Porter , Clusters and The New
concession, as well as operating costs. Economics of Competition. Harvard
Increasingly, Hong Kong Textile and Business Review, 1998.November -
Clothing industry is facing the threats of December p.77-90.
increased bargaining power of overseas
buyers. There are excellent opportunities for 7. Michael Storper, , Regional 'Worlds' of
the Hong Kong Textile and Clothing Production: Learning and Innovation in
industry in the neighboring countries, where the Technology Districts of France, Italy
there are the world’s largest growing and the USA. regional Studies, 1992.27.5
markets, in which Hong Kong has p.433-455.
geographic and cultural proximity. To
capture the business opportunities and 8. International Institute for Management
develop sustainable competitiveness in the Development, The world competitiveness
new economy, it is essential for the Hong yearbook, 2000, Lausanne, Switzerland:
Kong Textile and Clothing industry to invest International Institute for Management
and develop knowledge-based core Development
competencies in the areas of product
innovation, design and original brand 9. Intelligence, A.M., Asia Pacific Market
marketing, which can be largely enhanced Handbook 1998.1998?Hong Kong SMI
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 10. Anon, Consumer Asia 1999.6ed.1999
London Euromonitor.43.
We would like to thank The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University for funding this 11. Anon, Consumer Europe.1997 London:
research through the Area of Strategic Euromonitor Publications.346.
Development: Apparel Product
Development and Marketing. 12. Anon, Almanac of China's textile
industry.1999 Beijing : Fang zhi gong
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Entry into WTO- the Analysis of the
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AUTHORS’ INFORMATION
Yi Li
Institute of Textiles and Clothing
Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
tcliyi@polyu.edu.hk
Lei Yao
Institute of Textiles and Clothing
Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Article Designation: Scholarly Works 11 JTATM
Volume 2, Issue 1, Fall 2001
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