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1 In the diagram below we illustrate the processes which precede escaping livelihood strategies by modifying Ellis (2000) framework for micro policy analysis of rural livelihoods (p. 30). We suggest that national /state/global changes in context, in governance and in the economy tend to be filtered through a layer oft neglected processes in the study of livelihoods (highlighted in turquoise).: - local elite accumulation economic and political strategies; - processes of change in the terms in which poor people are excluded/incorporated into the market, state, society and family – - intergenerational and gendered decisions within families, regarding who get what resources and does what work Each of these processes affect inherited capitals (human assets, physical, social capital, self-esteem and livelihood resilience) and how these capitals can be translated into escaping livelihood strategies. Such strategies include the ability to have buffers to avoid Faustian coping response to shocks and to avoid risk associated with investing/migrating and failing; breaking out of exploitative /oppressive social relations, and successfully pursing employment or accumulating strategies. For instance, in the prospering silk cultivator example above - he succeeded because: 1. AISE – a. Economy : fall in bonded/tied labour contracts b. Political society - rise in involvement in political process, citizenship c. Society – reduced segregation in school/medical access/his empowerment and aspirations rose 2. IGT/I a. Family - IGT – he was a male and was favoured in inheritance and changes to high dowry payments at marriage 3. Elite’s strategies- didn’t inhibit his rise via bribes for access to political benefits. . Economic Changes in relative prices Technical changes Changes in environmental sustainability – esp. farm land National and global economic trends (e.g. affecting demand for local commodities/labour) Restructuring capitalisms- modernisation, urbanisation, monetisation and de-agrarianisation Policies and Programmes: governance and anti-poverty Affecting economy Liberalisation Driving market toward productive or speculative investment Affecting politics – concerned with cp vote? Pro-poor affecting locality Education, Health, Asset/loan/food subsides Affirmative action and empowerment Other context and shocks Climate change Population growth Migration patterns TV/internet – spread of info and new social norms Global shocks – civil war, drought, floods, pests, new diseases 2 Local Elite Accumulation Strategies Production and labour market – investment in new job creating growth, disinvesting or re-locating out of locality selling up land. Mechanisation or workforce restructuring - using local labour or importing migrants and other contract workers; using cheaper child labour or female labour – male unemployment. Rural manufacture Credit market – extending loans, commission trading on tied bases with small cultivators Local politics AISE -Processes of change and transformation – the terms on which poor people are incorporated into different institutional arenas • State/political society • Economy • Civil society • Family • spatial Each structured by gender, age, class, caste/ethnicity/religion Research instrument: questioning on various social contracts IGT/I decisions – which affect inherited capitals of next generation • Health each child • Education • Asset decision (e.g. starve/withdraw from education to save assets) • Inheritance decisions - heavily structured by gender and age • demographic Should we move family to IGT decisions? Across - . Affect on inherited capabilities/capitals (enablers of escapes and buffers) Physical/financial/natural Human assets – literacy/health Social capital/status – a) networks (safety and information about economic prospects) b) Power via-a-vis patrons - employers, lenders, and buyers of goods Livelihood resilience – safeguards etc Self-esteem and aspirations Escaping livelihood strategies buffers – (assets, family networks, state protection) a. for successful non-Faustian coping response to shocks (e.g. ability not to take high interest rate loans from moneylenders, not entering into tied/semi-boded labour relations, not selling productive assets in order to fund health care costs, loans, deaths and marriage costs) and b. risks associated with accumulating and failing (e.g. failed migration strategy or investing in irrigation assets and failing) Breaking out of exploitive PC arrangements: tied labour and unpaid labour, tied harvests, seclusion and unpaid work within home, decisions to vote/move in public spaces/take loans Taking credit at reasonable rates of interest independently of patrons and patriarchs (via state, NGOs, self-help groups) Successful employment and accumulating strategies – Small commodity production - Land or livestock – expansion, irrigation, diversification, intensification Employment – work with contract gangs, literacy, skills, and decisions to migrate (remittances) Non-farm production or work (rural manufacture) Petty trade (need to add) 3 ‘Big structure’ – changes in relative prices, polices and programmes – prompt questioning relating to larger political and social economy Electrified Ground wells + HYV paddy subsidised food subsidised loans for assets hospital built but neglects sc elderly father ill global demand (and price) for Indian silk increases NGO presence in village Local village/site dates – new school built Individual family dates – deaths, miscarriages, Document changes in assets, employment terms, wage rates and AISE and domestic contracts FATHER’S LIFE COURSE Father’s life course Income Became re-tied to patron to take loans to fund dowry to marry daughter and bury father (inadequate Poverty line---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Subsidised dairy hospitalisation) cow from state Expand /sell milk business Broke from patron, wages rise NGO Loan to raise silk worms – his Used dowry from literacy helps bride’s family to Sc, fully purchase livestock bonded, Son literate – ITG interrupted 1973 father’s inheritance/ma rriage 1974 son born SON’S LIFE COURSE course Son’s life Sustained escape? Period of intergenerational investments in human assets for son and daughter (education, health) Infancy child youth 1993 Son’s inheritance 2008 MOTHER’S LIFE COURSE DAUGHTER’S LIFE COURSE Stops working illness with children born Greater paid employment =fem of Ag labour 2008 1973 Mother’s marriage 1974 Daughter born Period of intergenerational investments in human assets for son and daughter (education, 1991 daughter married 4 Notes: Very simplified and unfinished (mother and daughter) Subdivide son/daughters childhood into appropriate periods: infancy, childhood, youth, young adult etc. Compare father and son at mid-life cycle (before partition assets to children) to get sense of escapes - age 35? Mother’s and daughters income/well being – how measure? • Subjective (Davis) • Food security (how many meals) • in terms of degree of control over ‘jointly’ owned assets and spending of ‘joint’ income – own paid employment