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A modular model of
Municipal Solid Waste Incinerators
for Life-Cycle Inventories
by Marcel Hagel¨ken∗ and Andreas Ciroth†
u
October 2002
based on work by M. Heyde, M. Kremer, and A. Ciroth
Abstract
This text documents the structure and usage of a modular model for calculat-
ing the input/output balance of municipal solid waste incineration plants. The
calculation is based on the elementary composition of the waste incinerated,
and also on the plant layout. The layout is represented using different spread-
sheet files, each comprising one or more process steps. Each file is described
separately and general hints on how to use the model are given.
Contents
1 History 2
2 Implementation in the spreadsheet software 2
2.1 Module “combustion.xls” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Module “energy conversion.xls” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Module “electrostatic precipitator.xls” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Module “gas scrubber.xls” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Module “denox.xls” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6 Module “flow absorber.xls” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7 Module “suction fan.xls” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8 Module “master balance.xls” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3 Usage of the modular model 17
∗
m.hagelueken@gmx.de
†
ciroth@greendeltatc.com
1
1 History
The modular MSWI model is based on a model assuming “the technical state of the
art for modern municipal waste incineration plants in Germany” described by Kre-
TM
mer et al. [1998, p. 48]. The first spreadsheet version using the Microsoft Excel
u
program was developed by Ciroth [1998]. In a student research project [Hagel¨ken,
2001], the model has been re-structured and revised and some extensions and cor-
rections have been introduced. Afterwards, file organization and calculation were
altered mainly for improving usability, modularity and calculation performance.
2 Implementation in the spreadsheet software
The process structure of the state-of-the-art plant is shown in figure 1. The processes
and calculations are distributed to several files called “workbooks”. Most cells in
the workbooks are named and each name is unique in a workbook.
When this text refers to this names they are printed in typewriter, and the
name of the workbook might be stated as well according to Excel syntax, e. g.
’Electrostatic precipitator.xls’!t RG.out for the variable t_RG.out from the
workbook “Electrostatic precipitator.xls”. Table 1 gives an overview of the naming
convention.
Excel name Meaning
<variable>_<subscript index> variablesubscript index
<variable>_<superscript index>_<subscript index> variable
superscript index
subscript index
<variable>_<superscript index>_ variable
superscript index
<variable>.in Physical input of material/energy of process
<variable>.out Physical output of material/energy of process
<variable>.valueIn Nonphysical input of process
(value used for calculations in this process)
<variable>.valueOut Nonphysical output of process
(value used for calculations in another process)
(<variable>) <variable> is calculated/defined elsewhere and
only repeated here for convenience
Table 1: Naming convention used in the spreadsheet model
In the following, each workbook contains at least three sheets, one for inputs from
other workbooks, one for calculations belonging to the process, another for outputs
to other processes or results (figure 2). Thus, a workbook represents one (sometimes
more) processes of the incineration plant. The input and output sheets contain the
energy and material flows crossing the process’ system boundary. However, as can
be seen in table 1, some values have to be exchanged between the workbooks for
calculation purposes and do not represent physical in- or outputs. In the sheets, the
2
process/
electricity district heat limestone
water
cleaned gas
Steam utilization
Mixer activated coke
water
boiler feed water replace
water
steam
boiler feed
waste water
Boiler
air
Quench/ Electrostatic
DeNOx
Chimney
Spray dryer precipitator
bag filter
adsorber +
Acid scrubber
Desulphurization
Activated coke
waste feed
Combustion chamber
Waste bunker
3
Concentration ammonia/
water
bed ash cooling water heat from
gas burner contaminated
Precipitation active coke
bed ash boiler ash filter ash gypsum
sludge
FeCl3
NaOH
TMT 15
Based on [Kremer et al., 1998], modified
Figure 1: Process flow chart of the state-of-the-art plant modelled in the spreadsheet software. Inputs of electricity and water are not
shown for all components.
Figure 2: Sheets and sections generally found within a process module
colors green and red significate input and output, respectively. If a value is of black
color, it is changed in the workbook.
The processes represented by the workbook files are linked together by their in-
put/output sheets. The division into workbooks and their major dependencies are
shown in figure 3. The workbook “constants.xls” is not depicted. It contains global
constants like molar weights, air temperature, humidity, etc.
2.1 Module “combustion.xls”
The combustion module consists of grate firing and boiler. The heat energy of the
boiler is passed on to the module “energy conversion.xls” where it will be used to
create electricity and district heat, see 2.2. Figure 4 shows the system boundary of
the module. The input components are available as elementary composition from
the module “input.xls”. Depending on the concentration of macro-elements C, H,
O, S the minimum amount of air necessary for complete combustion is determined.
The actual air input is specified by the air excess λ (combustion.xls!Lambda).
The emission pathways are shown in figure 5. In the combustion module, the
composition of the streams is calculated with the following approaches (figure 6):
• CO2 , H2 O, N2 , and O2 are calculated on the basis of the oxidation of the input
substances. Changes in comparison to the previous version of the model:
– The amount of CO2 is corrected by the carbon being part of the TOC
(total organic carbon) emission (m_Total_TOC) and the amount of CO.
– The amount of water is determined by a water balance, and in this version
the evaporated water from the bed ash cooling is taken into account.
• The emission of NOx (m_NO_RG) is calculated using an empirical approach
given by Schnell [1991]:
MN O
mN · MN yOL
mN O,max = · RG,tr
(1)
mRG − mH2 O yOL − yO2
mN,waf mV M,waf mN O,max
mN O = 285 + 1280 · + 180 · ·
0, 015 0, 4 3200
4
Input.xls
Waste Energy
Heat
conversion.xls
Combustion.xls Electric power District heat
Flue gas Bed ash
Boiler ash
Electrostatic
precipitator.xls Filter ash
Waste water
Flue gas
NaOH
FeCl3 Gas scrubber.xls Heavy metal sludge
TMT15 Gypsum sludge
CaCO3
Flue gas
NH3 DeNOx.xls
Natural gas
Flue gas
Active coke Flow absorber.xls Loaded active coke
Flue gas
Data from all other
processes Data from all other
Suction fan.xls processes
Not displayed:
Water, air, energy Cleaned gas Master balance.xls
consumptions
Figure 3: Workbook structure of the modular spreadsheet model. Major dependencies, some
energy and material flows are also shown.
5
boiler feed
steam
water
Boiler
Combustion chamber
air
raw flue gas
waste feed
Waste bunker
bed ash cooling water
bed ash boiler ash
Figure 4: System boundary of the combustion module
volatile
flue gas
Input
filter dust
boiler ash
solids and
condensed particles bed ash
[Kremer et al., 1998]
Figure 5: Emission paths of the output flows from the combustion module
6
Flue gas &
Combustion.xls solid particles
H2O, CO2, N2, O2, NO,
SO2, HCl, HF
PCDD/F
n
lculatio
Heavy metals, Sulfide,
c ca
etri Chloride, Fluoride
ch iom icien
t
Sto coeff
sfer
Tran nts
Waste Input efficie TOC, CO
fer co
Trans nts
efficie
fer co Dust
Macroelements Trans
(C, O, H, N, Cl, S)
ients
oeffic
fer c
rans icient
Heavy metals T r coeff
Transfe
Tra
Ash ns
Tra fer co
(e.g. Si - nsf effi
components) er cien
coe t
Tran ffic
sfer Bed ash and boiler
coe ients
fficie ash
nts
Tra
nsf PCDD/F
Tra er c
nsf oef
ficie
er nt
coe
ffic Heavy metals, Sulfide,
ien
t
Chloride, Fluoride
TOC
Dust
Figure 6: Overview of the combustion module
mCf,waf mN O,max
− 840 · · (2)
0, 6 3200
mN Mass of N in the waste (Input.xls!m_N_waste)
Mi Molar mass of i
mRG Mass of flue gas (m_RG)
mH2 O Mass of water in flue gas (m_H2O)
yOL Volume fraction of oxygen in the air
(Constants.xls!y_OL)
RG,tr
y O2 Volume fraction of oxygen in the dry flue gas (y_RGtr_O2)
mN O,max Maximum amount of NO if all nitrogen in the waste is
converted to NO at 0 % O2 in the dry flue gas (m_NOmax)
mi,waf Mass of i per mass of water- and ash-free fuel
mV M Volatile mass of carbon in the waste
(Input.xls!m_VM_CWaste)
mC Mass of carbon in the waste (Input.xls!m_C_waste)
mCf Fixed carbon in the waste, mCf = mC − mV M
mN O Mass of NO in the dry flue gas (m_NO_RG)
Merely fuel parameters are taken into account and only fuel related NO, as it
dominates the NO-formation below combustion temperatures of 1200 ◦ C and
7
other mechanisms can then be neglected. The equations have been developed
for the NO-emissions of coal power plants. As the composition of municipal
solid waste and its combustion differs from that of coal, the application of this
equation remains somewhat experimental. It is probable that the concentra-
tion of nitrogen in the waste is beyond the range of validity and the resulting
values are greatly extrapolated. Practically, the values seem to overestimate
the real emission of NO.
• The emission of CO and TOC in the flue gas is derived from constant concen-
trations of these substances given in literature [Johnke, 1991, Mark, 1994a,b].
The distribution of TOC on the particles in filter, bed, and boiler ash is given
by transfer coefficients (x_RG_C, x_BA_C, x_KA_C).
• PCDD/F emissions are calculated on the basis of constant concentrations in
the flue gas and ashes acquired from literature [Johnke, 1991, Mark, 1994a,b].
Due to the public interest in these emissions, future improvements might in-
clude newer results and try to establish an input-dependant functional rela-
tionship.
• The distribution of metals to the emission pathways is defined by empir-
path
ical transfer coefficients V Ksubstance (combustion.xls!VK_path_substance).
u
These transfer coefficients were examined at the W¨rzburg incinerator [Kre-
mer et al., 1998, table 1] and naturally have only a limited validity, as they
depend on many influences like combustion temperature, residence time at this
temperature, redox-conditions, etc. [Belevi and Moench, 2000]. A portion of
the metals is evaporated and remains in the vapor state while some condensate
on dust particles depending on the temperature. Others originally have been
entrained in the air flow as solid particles and become part of the fly ash.
• The acid forming input substances S, Cl, and F are partly neutralized by basic
ash components. Their distribution to the pathways is also defined by transfer
coefficients [Angenend, 1990].
2.2 Module “energy conversion.xls”
The energy conversion comprises the generation of high pressure steam using the
heat from the combustion module (see 2.1), the reduction of its pressure in a turbine
to generate electric power, the use of low pressure steam for process or district heat,
and the condensation of excess steam in a condenser. Figure 7 shows the system
boundary of the module and figure 8 depicts the structure.
In the new version of the model, the amount of electrical power and district heat
are calculated using the data specified for the different thermodynamic states of the
working fluid in the energy conversion cycle. Energy losses before the heat exchange
between flue gas and boiler feed water include losses due to thermal conduction
and radiation (about 4 %). Unlike in the previous version, the energy loss due to
8
cooling
process/
district heat
feed water losses
G electricity
boiler feed water replace
boiler feed
steam
water
Boiler
Figure 7: System boundary of the energy conversion module
Energy
conversion.xls
Energy Input
Heat from Turbine Heat exchanger
Steam (T, P)
combustion.xls
Electrical power District heat
Figure 8: Overview of the energy conversion module
9
uncombusted products is calculated from the TOC and C concentrations in the
emission pathways. The usable energy for the steam generation is determined in an
energy balance in the combustion module.
The amount of district heat depends on a grade of efficiency ηF W (Eta_FW) that
specifies the average usage of this power source. The efficiency of the electrical power
conversion depends on the efficiencies of the turbine ηT (Eta_T) and the generator
ηG (Eta_G).
2.3 Module “electrostatic precipitator.xls”
This module also contains the spray dryer, where the waste water from acid scrub-
bing is evaporated (see 2.4 and figure 9). Subsequently, metals, sulfides, chlorides,
and all other substances adsorbed on solid particles in the flue gas are precipitated
according to transfer coefficients, see figure 10, thus forming the filter ash.
PCDD/F and TOC concentration on the dust particles have already been cal-
culated in the combustion module, and this value is also used to specify the con-
centration in the filter ash. However, the greatest amount of these substances is
adsorbed on the smallest dust particles (due to their larger specific surface), which
are not precipitated here. Therefore in future improved versions of the model, the
concentration of PCDD/F and TOC adsorbed on the remaining solid particles in
the flue gas should be adjusted according to the distribution of the particles’ sizes.
2.4 Module “gas scrubber.xls”
The system boundary of this module is shown in figure 11, and its operation is
displayed in figure 12. Before the first stage of the gas scrubbing, the flue gas is
cooled down by a regenerative heat exchanger. It is reheated after passage of the
scrubbers. The flue gas is saturated with water as far as possible to prevent the
evaporation of acid water in the scrubber. The consumption of fresh water and
the recirculation of the washing water is controlled to maintain a pH of 0,3 in the
scrubber (pH_WaschW).
In the new version of the model, the mass of water necessary for complete sat-
uration at the temperature after the heat exchanger is calculated and compared
to the actual amount. However, only as much water is added as is evaporated
without decreasing the temperature of the flue gas below a given value (t_Q_aus).
This temperature has a great influence in this module and if it is changed, many
other parameters also have to be adjusted, like the vapor pressure of water at this
temperature (Constants.xls!p_0_W_66). It might also be impossible to reach full
saturation of the flue gas at this temperature if the concentration of the vapor is
too low at the module input. This is checked by the model and, if necessary, an
adaptation of the temperatures is suggested (Chk_FGTemp_in).
The amount of fresh water for the acid scrubber is calculated based on a target con-
centration of 1,2 times the threshold value of HCl in the output stream (c_HClaus),
as further reduction of acids is achieved using activated coke later (see 2.6). The
10
waste water from
flue gas gas scrubber
from boiler
Quench/ Electrostatic flue
Spray dryer precipitator gas
filter ash
Figure 9: System boundary of the electrostatic precipitator module
Electrostatic
Water from
precipitator.xls scrubber
Flue gas Flue gas
(from combustion)
H2O, CO2, N2, O2, NO, H2O, CO2, N2, O2, NO,
SO2, HCl, HF SO2, HCl, HF
Heavy metals, Sulfid, Heavy metals, Sulfid,
Chlorid, Fluorid Chlorid, Fluorid
PCDD/F PCDD/F
TOC, CO TOC, CO
Dust Dust
Solid particles
Transfer coefficients Heavy metals, Sulfid,
Chlorid, Fluorid
Transfer coefficients PCDD/F
Transfer coefficients TOC
Transfer coefficients
Dust
Figure 10: Overview of the electrostatic precipitator module
11
limestone
water
water
Mixer
Desulphurization
Acid scrubber
flue gas
flue gas
from ESP
Concentration
waste water
Precipitation gypsum
to spray dryer
sludge
TMT 15
NaOH
FeCl3
Figure 11: System boundary of the two-stage gas scrubber module
12
Gas scrubber.xls
Flue gas Flue gas
(from ESP) HCl neutralisation with SO2 neutralisation with
H2O, CO2, N2, O2, NO, NaOH near threshold value CaCO3 near threshold value H2O, CO2, N2, O2, NO,
SO2, HCl, HF SO2, HCl, HF
Heavy metals, Sulfid, Transfer coefficients Heavy metals, Sulfid,
Chlorid, Fluorid Chlorid, Fluorid
PCDD/F Transfer coefficients PCDD/F
Transfer coefficients
TOC, CO TOC, CO
Dust Transfer coefficients Dust
Washing water with Wet gypsum sludge
heavy metal sludge
Heavy metals, Sulfid, Heavy metals, Sulfid,
Chlorid, Fluorid Chlorid, Fluorid
PCDD/F PCDD/F
Water to TOC TOC
ESP
Dust Dust
Figure 12: Overview of the gas scrubber module
waste water is neutralized with NaOH and heavy metals are flocculated and precip-
itated. The sludge is separated and the remaining water is evaporated in the spray
dryer (see 2.3).
The lime scrubber also bases on a given exit concentration of SO2 (c_SO2aus).
The resulting suspension of gypsum contains about 6 % dry matter. The water is
separated up to 90 % dry matter and recycled to prepare the lime suspension in the
mixer.
In both stages of the gas scrubber, the separation of other substances than HCl
and SO2 is determined by transfer coefficients. However, the reductions are mainly
based on assumptions.
2.5 Module “denox.xls”
The DeNOx process is of the selective catalytic reduction type (SCR) using ammonia
as reductive agent (Figures 13 and 14). For this reaction, a temperature of 320 ◦ C
(t_w_ein) has to be provided. This is achieved by a heat cycle including a natural gas
auxiliary burner. The given exit concentration of NOx (c_NOxaus) and the amount
of excess ammonia (c_NH3Schlupf) determine the total consumption of ammonia.
The real mechanism comprises several reactions [Schnell, 1991], however only one of
the main reactions is taken into account here:
4 NH3 + 4 NO + O2 4 N2 + 6 H2 O (3)
13
flue gas from
flue gas
gas scrubber DeNOx
ammonia/
water
heat from
gas burner
Figure 13: System boundary of the DeNOx module
DeNOx.xls
NH3
SCR Reactor
Flue gas Flue gas
(from gas scrubber) 4 NH3 + 4 NO + O2 --> 4 N2 + 6 H2O
H2O, CO2, N2, O2, NO, H2O, CO2, N2, O2, NO,
Loss of unused NH3 in flue gas stream
SO2, HCl, HF SO2, HCl, HF, NH3
given as concentration
Heavy metals, Sulfid, Heavy metals, Sulfid,
Chlorid, Fluorid Chlorid, Fluorid
PCDD/F PCDD/F
TOC, CO TOC, CO
Dust Dust
Figure 14: Overview of the DeNOx module
14
activated
coke
Activated coke
adsorber +
bag filter
flue gas from
flue gas
DeNOx
contaminated
active coke
Figure 15: System boundary of the flow absorber module (activated coke adsorber and filter)
In contrast to the previous version of the model, the educt oxygen and product water
are taken into account in the recalculation of the flue gas composition that leaves
the module.
2.6 Module “flow absorber.xls”
The flow absorber module uses activated coke to adsorb volatile heavy metals and
organic compounds, figure 15. The calculation of the precipitation is based on
transfer coefficients, as shown in figure 16.
Like in the previous version of the model, for HCl, HF, and SO2 a maximum con-
centration in the activated carbon is specified (x_HOK_HCl, x_HOK_HF, x_HOK_SO2),
representing the maximum possible adsorption of these substances. Thus, these
substances are separated from the flue gas according to their transfer coefficients
(VK_FSA_HCl, VK_FSA_HF, VK_FSA_SO2) up to this value, the rest will remain in
the gas.
In the previous version, constant output concentrations were specified for the
other substances in the flue gas. The new version uses transfer coefficients from
literature to calculate the exit concentrations [Knoche, 1992, Kreusing, 1994, Pe-
ters, 1993, Wecker, 1993]. This is done to restore the dependency of the output
concentrations on the input concentrations and to facilitate future changes to the
adsorption efficiencies. If data becomes available, this might include the specifica-
tion of a maximum concentration in the activated carbon, like it is done for HCl,
HF, and SO2 [Kreusing, 1994].
In reality, part of the activated carbon is recycled. As a steady-state is modelled,
the consumption of fresh activated coke depends on the flue gas volume flow. The
15
Flow absorber.xls
Flue gas
H2O, CO2, N2, O2, NO,
SO2, HCl, HF, NH3
Activated coke
depending on
volume flow
Heavy metals, Sulfid,
Chlorid, Fluorid
PCDD/F
Flue gas
(from DeNOx)
H2O, CO2, N2, O2, NO, TOC, CO
SO2, HCl, HF, NH3 Dust
Heavy metals, Sulfid,
Chlorid, Fluorid Loaded active carbon
Precipitation up to
PCDD/F maximum concentration
in active carbon SO2, HCl, HF
TOC, CO
Transfer coefficients Heavy metals, Sulfid,
Dust Chlorid, Fluorid
Transfer coefficients PCDD/F
Transfer coefficients TOC
Transfer coefficients
Dust
Figure 16: Overview of the flow absorber module
mass of loaded active coke is the sum of this input and the mass of precipitated
substances.
2.7 Module “suction fan.xls”
This module is special, as it uses data from all other modules (compare figure 3) to
calculate the energy consumption of the suction fan that conveys the gases through
the whole flue gas treatment. The previous model assumed a constant volume and
amount of the flue gas in all processes, but the new calculates the volume flow from
the temperature and pressure in each process. The gas is assumed as an ideal gas,
and the work is calculated assuming a linear relationship between volume flow and
pressure drop. These assumptions are rather rough, but to be exact here much more
detailed data about the dimensions and the geometry of the purification processes
would be necessary.
However, it should be pointed out that the available data about the consumption
of electric energy in MSWI plants greatly varies in detail and accuracy.1 Thus, the
calculation of the power consumption of the suction fan alone might not useful and
further processes should be included in the future.
1
ımica, 1998] contains very detailed data about the power
Though e. g. [Servei de Tecnologia Qu´
consumption of a waste incinerator and its processes.
16
2.8 Module “master balance.xls”
The master balance module unites the results of the spreadsheet modules. There-
fore, there are no physical inputs in this module. Several inputs and outputs are
calculated, like the concentrations of pollutants in the cleaned flue gas (c_RG_i,
where i specifies the substance).
3 Usage of the modular model
The MSWI model is started by opening the file “MSWI Main workbook.xls”. It
contains links to all modules and allows to jump easily from workbook to workbook
(sheet “Workbook dependencies”). It also serves as connection between the different
modules (sheet “Workbook connections”), so that the modules are independent of
each other. Each module has only direct connections to the main workbook and
to no other module. The connections are using names that are composed of the
module’s name, dots (“...”), and the name of the data that is exchanged, e. g.
DeNOx...t RG.in is given as name to the cell in the main workbook which contains
the value that is used for t_RG.in in the module “DeNOx.xls”.
This structure facilitates the insertion and removal of modules: For the addition
of a new module, the links on the input and output sheet of the module have to
be adjusted to the main workbook as well as the links on the sheet “Workbook
connections” of the main workbook. Some macros for the adaptation of names
should make this process easy. For the removal of a module, only the links on the
“Workbook connections” sheet have to be adjusted and the old names should be
deleted.
The file “input.xls” contains the calculation of the elementary composition of
the waste input. The percentages of the waste fractions can be entered in the
corresponding lines, and the resulting waste composition is filled in automatically.
A warning message will remain visible below the title until all fractions sum up
to 100 % (see figure 17 cell B2, and Total_Amount in cell C93). Own elementary
data of a fraction can be entered using the insert-line function of Excel, but this
should be done only above the last entry of a waste fraction to preserve layout and
functionality of the workbook. In the situation displayed in figure 17 this would be
above line 50. For convenience, a filter has been added so that, for example, only
the fractions occurring in the actual composition are displayed. This is done by the
selection of “Not empty” from the filter menu as shown in figure 17. Three different
methods for the usage of a heating value are available from a menu: The first option
combines the heating values of the fractions according to their percentages to a single
value (h_uCombined), the second uses an empirical equation, and the third can be
activated when a value is written into the corresponding field, thus facilitating free
input.
Normally, the combustion and energy conversion module will be included in every
MSWI model. Adaptations should be made to the process specific constants and, if
available, also to the transfer coefficients. However, some constants depend on each
17
Figure 17: Usage of the “input.xls” spreadsheet
18
other, especially the constants representing thermodynamic states in the energy
conversion module. There are no built-in consistency checks, as the original Excel
(without Add-In-Packages) lacks thermodynamic data tables.
The following modules representing the flue gas purification will differ from plant
to plant. However, the modules of the state-of-the-art model might serve as a basis
for most flue gas treatment processes. As described above, the input and output
sheets of each module facilitate the interface to other modules via the “Workbook
connections” sheet of the main workbook.
The modules which unite results from different modules, like the flue gas pump
and the master balance, need to be adapted accordingly and attention should be paid
to the summation of parameters. It is recommended to check the list of cell-names
and to delete names that might have become obsolete.
19
References
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pp. 36–43, 1990. 8
Belevi H. and Moench H. Factors determining the element behavior in municipal
solid waste incinerators. Environmental Science & Technology, 34 (12): pp. 2501
– 2512, 2000. 8
¨
Ciroth A. Beispielhafte Anwendung der Iterativen Screening-Okobilanz. Diplo-
u
marbeit, Institut f¨r Technischen Umweltschutz, Fachgebiet Abfallvermeidung,
a
Technische Universit¨t Berlin, Germany, 1998. 2
Hageluken M. Effects of different models of Municipal Solid Waste Incinerators
¨
on the results of Life-Cycle Assessments. Student research project, TU Berlin,
2001. 2
u
Johnke B. Auswertung des bundesweiten Dioxinmeßprogramms an Hausm¨llver-
u
brennungsanlagen. M¨ll und Abfall, 23: pp. 753–760, 1991. 8
Knoche R. Emissionsminderung in der thermischen Abfallverwertung. Staub-
Reinhaltung der Luft, 52: pp. 179–185, 1992. 15
Kremer M., Goldhan G., and Heyde M. Waste treatment in product specific
life cycle inventories (Part I: Incineration). International Journal of Life Cycle
Assessment, 3 (1): pp. 47 – 55, 1998. 2, 3, 6, 8
Kreusing H. Braunkohlenkoks zu Adsorption von Spurenstoffen aus Abfallver-
brennungsabgasen. Abfallwirtschafts-Journal, 6: p. 9 ff., 1994. 15
Mark F. Energy recovery – through co-combustion of mixed plastic waste and
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