ENGLAND

							ENGLAND
GEOGRAPHY
HISTORY &
  CULTURE
Area: 130,000 sq. km
Population: 47,536,000
Capital: London
Language: English
Economy: agriculture, industry, mining, tourism. Chief exports: machinery, cars, textile. Large deposits of
oil, natural gas, coal, iron ore, tin, copper, led and clay.
Currency: the British pound sterling divided into 100 pence. There is no limit on the import or export of
British currency.
        England (Latin Anglia), political division of the island of Great Britain, constituting, with Wales,
the principal division of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. England occupies all
of the island east of Wales and south of Scotland, another division of the United Kingdom. Established as
an independent monarchy many centuries ago, England in time achieved political control over the rest of
the island, all the British Isles, and vast sections of the world, becoming the nucleus (ядро) of one of the
greatest empires in history. The capital, largest city, and chief port of England is London, with a
population (1991 preliminary) of 6,378,600. It is also the site of the headquarters of the Commonwealth of
Nations.
        The Land
        England is somewhat triangular in shape, with its apex at the mouth of the Tweed River. The
eastern leg, bounded by the North Sea, extends generally southeast to the North Foreland, the northern
extremity of the region called the Downs. The western leg of the triangle extends generally southwest
from the mouth of the Tweed along the boundary with Scotland, the Irish Sea, St. George’s Channel, and
the Atlantic Ocean to Land’s End, the westernmost extremity of England and of the island. The northern
frontier extends from Solway Firth on the west along the Cheviot Hills to the mouth of the Tweed on the
east. The base of the triangle fronts the English Channel and the Strait of Dover. The total area of England
is 130,439 sq km (50,363 sq mi), 57 percent of the area of the island. This total includes the region of the
Scilly Isles, southwest of Land’s End in the Atlantic Ocean; the Isle of Wight, located off the southern
coast; and the Isle of Man, located in the Irish Sea.
        One of the principal physiographic features of England, as well as of the entire island of Great
Britain, is the deeply indented coast. By virtue of (на основі) the high tides that prevail along the eastern
coast, a number of rivers and their estuaries provide this region with safe anchorages. The most important
of these belong to such ports as Newcastle upon Tyne, on the Tyne River; Middlesbrough, on the Tees
River; Hull, on the Humber River; Great Yarmouth, on the estuary of the Yare River; and London, on the
Thames River. The most important harbors on the southern coast include those of Dover, Hastings,
Eastbourne, Brighton, Portsmouth, Bournemouth, and Plymouth. The western coast, considerably more
broken than either the eastern or southern coast, also has numerous anchorages. Of outstanding
commercial importance are the harbor of Bristol, at the confluence of Bristol Channel and the Severn
River; and Liverpool Harbor, at the mouth of the Mersey River.
        The terrain of England is diversified (різноманітний). The northern and western portions are
generally mountainous. The principal highland region, the Pennine Chain (or Pennines), forms the
backbone of northern England. It is composed of several ranges extending south from the Cheviot Hills to
the valley of the Trent River and numerous spurs (вершини гірського хребта) and extensions that radiate
in all directions. The extreme elevation of the Pennine Chain and the highest summit in England is Scafell
Pike (978 m/3210 ft above sea level). A large portion of the area occupied by the Pennine Chain
comprises the Lake District, one of the most picturesque regions in England. The terrain east of Wales and
between the southern extremities of the Pennine Chain and Bristol Channel is an extension of the rolling
plain that occupies most of central and eastern England. Much of the western part of this central region is
known as the Midlands; it contains an area that is known as the Black Country because of its intensive
industrial development. To the east lies The Fens, a vast drained marsh area. To the south of Bristol
Channel an elevated plateau slopes upward, culminating in the barren (безплідний) uplands and moors
(торфяники) of Cornwall and Devon. Dartmoor (about 610 m/about 2000 ft above sea level), one of the
wildest tracts (лісосіка) in England, is situated in this region. Successive ranges of chalk hills, seen from
the English Channel as white cliffs, project eastward from Devon to the Strait of Dover.
        Climate
        As a result of the relative warmth of the nearby seas, England has a moderate climate, rarely
marked by extremes of heat or cold. The mean annual temperature ranges between 11.1° C (52° F) in the
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south and 8.9° C (48° F) in the northeast. Seasonal temperatures vary between a mean of about 16.1° C
(61° F) during July, the hottest month of the year, and 4.4° C (40° F) during January, the coldest month.
The average January and July temperatures for the city of London are 4.5° C (40° F) and 18° C (64° F).
Fogs, mists, and overcast skies are frequent, particularly in the Pennine and inland regions. Precipitation
(опади), heaviest during October, averages about 760 mm (about 30 in) annually in most of England.
        Natural Resources
        England has some agricultural and mineral resources but must rely on imports of both.
Approximately two-fifths of the land area is arable, with the richest soils found in the east.
        Nature
        In early times, England, like most of the island of Great Britain, was heavily forested, chiefly with
oak and beech in the lowlands and pine and birch (береза) in the mountainous areas. Woodlands now
constitute less than 4 percent of the total land area. Various types of fruit trees are cultivated, including the
cherry, apple, and plum. A common shrub is a species of furze (дрок) known locally as gorse. Numerous
varieties of wildflowers are also found.
        Among the chief indigenous (місцевий) fauna of England are several species of deer, fox, rabbit,
hare, and badger (борсук). The most widespread bird is the meadow pipit, and sparrows are abundant.
Grouse (шотландська перепілка) are found in the northern counties. Other familiar species are the crow,
pigeon, rook (грак), starling (шпак), and several members of the thrush (дрозові) family. Reptiles, of
which only four species occur on the entire island of Great Britain, are rare in England. The most common
freshwater fishes found in England are trout and salmon.
        Population
        The great majority of the people of England, like those of the British Isles in general, are
descended from early Celtic and Iberian peoples and later invaders of the islands, including the Romans,
Anglo-Saxons, Danes, and Normans. After 1945 substantial numbers of blacks and Asians immigrated
into the country. England, once a nation of small rural villages, has become highly urban since the early
19th century
        Political Divisions
        For local governmental purposes, England is divided into 39 nonmetropolitan counties, 6
metropolitan counties, and Greater London (established in 1965 as a separate administrative entity). The
counties are subdivided into a total of about 330 districts, which together are further divided into some
10,000 parishes. Each level of local government is presided over by a council, the members of which are
elected to four-year terms. In districts that have the title of city or borough, the chairperson of the council
is the mayor.
        Principal Cities
        After London, Birmingham, population (1991) 934,900, is the second largest city and is the center
of an extensive industrial area that contains major concentrations of the automotive and other industries.
Liverpool (448,300) is the second largest port and a major cargo export outlet of Great Britain; it is also a
great commercial and industrial center. Manchester (397,400) is the chief commercial hub of the cotton
and synthetic-fiber textile industries, as well as an important financial and commercial center and a major
port. Among other important cities are Sheffield (500,500), the heavy engineering center famous for its
high-quality steels, cutlery, and tools, and Bristol (370,300), a leading port and commercial center.
        Religion
        The Church of England, a Protestant Episcopal denomination, is the state church and the nominal
church of nearly three-fifths of the population. The denomination next in importance is the Roman
Catholic church, which has about 6 million members in England. Among the numerous Protestant
denominations are the Methodist, Baptist, Congregationalist, Unitarian, and Society of Friends. England
also has about 600,000 Muslims and 350,000 Jews. Large communities of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs
have immigrated to England since the 1950s.
        English Law
        English law originated in the customs of the Anglo-Saxons and of the Normans who conquered
England in 1066. The Norman kings established a strong, centralized system for the administration of
justice, and the royal courts developed a complex system of rules based on custom. Clashes (сутички)
between the power of the monarch and competing interests, the feudal barons in early times and later


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Parliament, produced basic legal documents that have had tremendous influence on the whole English-
speaking world.
         History
         The history of England as the history of whole Britain is very interesting and full of great events. But
I think that I’d rather not pay much attention to it because its too big. I shall try to tell it briefly.
         The Ice Age, during which Neandertals and then Cro-Magnons inhabited Great Britain, ended
about 8000 BC. The rising sea level produced the English Channel and made Great Britain an island. In
the new environment of forest and swamp the Middle Stone Age came and passed, followed by the New
Stone Age, during which the practice of agriculture was begun. This period brought a stream of new
people to Britain: Iberians, or Long Skulls, were farming the chalk soil of southern England; Beaker folk
had established themselves, the latter, named for their characteristic pottery. In the 1st millennium BC the
Celts overran the British Isles, as they did virtually (фактично) all of Western Europe. With iron plows
they cultivated the heavy soil of the river valleys; with iron weapons and two-wheeled, horse-drawn
chariots, they subdued and absorbed the indigenous (місцеві) inhabitants of the islands. Their priests, the
Druids, dominated their society. These Druids could not read or write, but they memorized all the
religious teaching, the tribal laws, history, medicine and other knowledge necessary in Celtic society. The
Druids from different tribes all over Britain probably met once year. They had no temples, but they met in
sacred groves (хащі) of trees, on certain hills, by rivers or by river sources. We know little of their kind of
worship except that at times it included human sacrifice.
         The name “Britain comes from the word “Pretani”, the Greco-Roman word for the inhabitants of
Britain. The Romans mispronounced it and called the Island “Britannia”. Julius Caesar first came to
Britain but Emperor Claudius I invaded Britain in AD 43 and occupied it.
         Britain was a military outpost, taking a tenth of the Roman army to hold it. Numerous villas – vast
estates worked by slaves and featuring sumptuous (розкішний) noble dwellings – were also established.
Beyond these, the countryside remained Celtic.
         In 410 Rome abandoned Britain. After nearly four centuries of occupation, it left little that was
permanent: a superb network of roads, the best Britain would have for 1400 years; the sites of a number of
towns – London, York, and others bearing names that end in the suffix -cester and -caster; and
Christianity. The Anglo-Saxons, who occupied the country after the Romans left, ignored the towns,
chased Christianity into Wales, and gave their own names.Days of the week were named after Germanic
gods: Tig (Tuesday), Wodin (Wednesday), Thor (Thursday), Frei (Friday). The ending –ing meant folk or
family, ham means farm, ton means settlement. Thus we now have Hastings (place of the family of
Hasta), Birmingham, Nottingham, Southampton etc.
         The Anglo-Saxons established numerous kingdoms (Essex, Sussex, Wessex, Middlesex, East
Anglia). The Most powerful were Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex. And soon King Offa of Mercia, who
was the most powerful claimed “kingship of the English”. The Saxons created institutions made the English
state strong for the next 500 years. One of these was Witan, the King’s Council.
          The dominant themes of the next two centuries were the success of Christianity and the political
unification of England. Christianity came from two directions – Rome and Ireland.
         Towards the end of the 8th century new raiders were tempted by Britain wealth. These were Vikings,
a word which probably means “pirates”. In that time king of Wessex Alfred won battle in 878 and then
make treaty with Vikings.
         After 991 this government proved capable of collecting the Danegeld, a tax on land, initially used
as tribute to the Danes but later as an ordinary source of royal revenue. No other country in western
Europe had the ability to assess and collect such a tax.
         After these events came next kings Edward, who built Westminster Abbey in 1066 and his son
Harold II. And then after battle at Hastings William was crowned in Westminster Abbey on Christmas
Day. The Norman Conquest was going to begin. Norman feudalism became the basis for redistributing
the land among the conquerors, giving England a new French aristocracy and a new social and political
structure. William’s power and efficiency can be seen in the Domesday Book (Survey).
         Then after Norman period began a “period of English kings”: Henry; Richard I, the Lion-Hearted,
was in England only briefly; John who was forced to accept Magna Carta in 1215; Edward I who restored
royal control and made several reforms: he limited the barons' right to hold their own courts of law and
curtailed (скоротити) the vassals' right to dispose of land to the detriment (збитки) of their feudal lords,

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and he gave English common law the direction it was to take for centuries to come. Most important,
Edward I used and developed Parliament, which was essentially the king's feudal council with a new name
and an enlarged membership; Edward II was a weak king, partly influenced by favorites and partly
dominated by the ordinances of 1311 that gave the barons the ruling power
        Than the centuries of wars and disorder came to England: the Black Death struck England in 1349;
the Statute of Laborers (1351) tried to freeze wages and prevent serfs and workers from taking advantage
of the resulting labor shortage; the Peasants' Revolt in 1381; the move of the popes from Rome to
Avignon in France (1309-1376) and the Great Schism (1378-1417), in which rival popes opposed one
another, caused a loss of English respect for the papacy; war with Scotland and France, revolt in Wales,
the War of the Roses (1455-1485). The war was fought between two branches of the royal family, the
Lancastrians, who in the person of Henry VI possessed the throne but lacked the ability to rule, and the
Yorkists, led by Richard, Duke of York, who had a valid claim to the throne and greater ability.
        The 15th century was a time of trouble and change. The country was ravaged by war and plague,
and the population did not begin to increase again until near the end of the century, nobles were exploiting
wool demand and work of poor. All that England needed was a king who could restore efficiency to the
royal government and bring law and order to the countryside. Henry VII in 1485 appointed himself to do
just that. The Tudors period was just to begin.
        Henry VII avoided wars and quarrels with France and Scotland because he believed that it’s the
worst thing for business and state. He also made Crown financially independent and begun the
Reformation, which separated English Church from Rome. But soon it caused the Protestant-Catholic
struggle. Great role in this war played Elizabeth I, Cooperating with Parliament, she settled the church in
1559 on a moderate course. She neutralized the Scottish threat (загроза) by helping the Protestant and
pro-English faction to win dominance there. She assisted the Protestant rebels in the Spanish Netherlands
and encouraged English sailors to raid Spanish ships on the high seas. Her navy defeated the Spanish
Armada in 1588 and prevented the invasion of England. Ireland, increasingly rebellious and vulnerable as
a possible point of foreign attack, was finally completely conquered in 1603. Elizabeth presided over
England's rise to glory abroad and to prosperity and literary achievement at home, justifiably giving her
name to England's golden age.
        The accession of James I, the son of Elizabeth's cousin, Mary, queen of Scots, united the crowns of
England and Scotland. It also began a century of domestic conflict, due in part to the personalities of the
Stuart kings, but more to the problems inherited from the previous reign. The Puritans, or extreme
Protestants, who had already been restive under Elizabeth, grew increasingly dissatisfied with the Church
of England, which they felt was still too Catholic. Religious unrest reached its height when the anti-
Puritan William Laud became archbishop of Canterbury in the 1630s. The Gunpowder Plot, a Roman
Catholic conspiracy to blow up Parliament in 1605, confirmed English fear of Rome.
        Charles attempted to rule without Parliament from 1629 to 1640. His efforts to obtain money
without the aid of Parliament by all kinds of extraordinary levies became notorious. This Parliament,
known as the Long Parliament, used the crisis to get control of the government. It abolished (скасувати)
the prerogative courts, limited the king's ability to tax, and established the rule that Parliament should
meet every three years. Soon Charles gathered the army to regain the power and during the Civil War was
defeated by Oliver Cromwell, who created the Ironsides cavalry regiment and then the New Model Army.
The problem of settling the government on a permanent basis was never solved. The new Council of State
had to depend on the force of the army and the scant legitimacy of the Rump Parliament. Cromwell was
the dominant individual. From 1649 to 1651 he subdued Ireland and Scotland and brought them into the
Commonwealth. Cromwell pursued an active foreign policy. The Navigation Act of 1651 provoked the
Dutch War of 1652 to 1654, from which England gained some success. Jamaica was taken from Spain in
1655. Allied with France, England in 1658 won the Battle of the Dunes and took Dunkerque in France.
Not since Elizabeth's reign had English ships and arms been so successful and so respected.
        England welcomed Charles II home in May 1660 and attempted to restore things to what they had
been in 1642. Only a dozen men were executed for their role in the execution of Charles I. Both the people
and Charles had learned the value of moderation, but the issue of sovereignty remained to be resolved.
        After the Glorious Revolution and Industrial revolution England came into great politics and finance.
The wars also demonstrated the wealth that England now had. England began intensive colonization of
Africa, India after the loss of American colonies. Then “Opium Wars” and war in Afghanistan, the war with

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Dutch settlers in South Africa took place. Britain conquered Egypt, built Suez Canal, colonized Australia
and New Zealand. The great colonial empire was established. But I am rather talking about the history of
Great Britain now. These events opened pages of large, powerful state which included almost British Isles
and a quarter of the world.
        Culture
        The two groups seem to have blended together to produce the cult in Southern England that we call
the 'Wessex Culture.' They were responsible for the enormous earthwork called Silbury Hill, the largest
manmade mound (курган) in prehistoric Europe. Silbury is 39 metres high and was built as a series of
circular platforms; their purpose still unknown. Nearby is the largest henge of all, Avebury, consisting of a
vast circular ditch and bank, an outer ring of one hundred standing stones and two smaller inner rings of
stones. Outside the monument was a mile-long avenue of standing stones.
        Grave goods also attest to the sophistication of the Wessex culture: these include well-made stone
battle axes, but also metal daggers with richly decorated hilts, precious ornaments of gold or amber, as well
as gold cups, amulets, even a sceptre with a polished mace-head (булава) at one end. To make bronze, tin
came from Cornwall; gold came from Wales, and products made from these metals were traded freely both
within the British Isles and with peoples on the continent of Europe. Bronze was used to make cauldrons
(котли) and bowls, shields and helmets, weapons of war, and farming tools. It was at this time that the
Celtic peoples arrived in the islands we now call Britain.
        Stonehenge, prehistoric ritual monument, situated on Salisbury Plain, north of Salisbury, England,
and dating from the late Stone and early Bronze ages (circa 3000-1000 BC). It is the most celebrated of
the megalithic monuments of England. Stonehenge is surrounded by a circular ditch, 104 m (340 ft) in
diameter and 1.5 m (5 ft) deep, within which is a bank and a ring of 56 pits known as Aubrey holes (after
their discoverer, the British antiquarian John Aubrey). At the northeast end a break (пролом) in the ditch
affords access to a ditch-bordered avenue that extends in a generally northeastward direction to the East
Avon River.
        The monument itself consists of four concentric ranges of stones. Within this arrangement is a
smaller horseshoe-shaped range of blue stones enclosing a slab (плита) of micaceous (слюдяний)
sandstone known as the Altar Stone. Near the entrance to the avenue lies the so-called Slaughter Stone, a
sarsen stone that may originally have stood upright. The blue stones are from the north flank (бік) of the
Prescelly Mountains in Wales. The Altar Stone is believed to have come from the region near Milford
Haven, Pembrokeshire.
        Stonehenge was desecrated (плюндрувати) sometime between 55 BC and AD 410 by the Romans,
who tore down a number of the upright stones. In 1958 five fallen stones were raised, giving the
monument the approximate appearance it had during the Roman occupation. On some of the fallen stones
were found depicting bronze axеheads of a type used in Britain between 1600 and 1400 BC and a dagger
(кинджал) of a type used in Mycenae, Greece, between 1600 and 1500 BC.
        Parts of Stonehenge undoubtedly were built by a people who had widespread European trade
connections and who established their principal settlements in the area between 1600 and 1300 BC.
Although Stonehenge is related basically to the circular stone or wooden temples that were constructed in
Britain during the Bronze Age, it is structurally unique among European prehistoric monuments.
        The function of Stonehenge has long been a matter of conjecture. In 1964 the American
astronomer Gerald S. Hawkins reported findings obtained by supplying a computer with measurements
taken at Stonehenge together with astronomical information based on celestial positions in 1500 BC when
Stonehenge was in use. According to Hawkins the Stonehenge complex could have been used to predict
the summer and winter solstices, the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, and eclipses of both the sun and
moon. Moreover, a variety of other information pertaining to the sun and moon could also be predicted
with remarkable accuracy. Hawkins concluded that Stonehenge functioned as a means of predicting the
positions of the sun and moon relative to the earth, and thereby the seasons, and perhaps also as a simple
daily calendar.
        These are examples of ancient architecture but England passed through different styles during
history. Anglo-Saxons are especially known for their architecture in wood. Norman architecture presents
another variety of Romanic style. It is also characterized by the round arches. The most famous Gothic
buildings are Salisbury Cathedral, Exeter Cathedral, Canterbury Cathedral and chapel in King’s College in
Cambridge. Then England passes through the Tudors, Renaissance, Georgian and Victorian architecture.

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        Legends
        Beowulf, an Anglo-Saxon epic poem, the most important work of Old English literature. The
earliest surviving manuscript is in the British Library; it is written in the West Saxon dialect and is
believed to date from the late 10th century. On the basis of this text, Beowulf is generally considered to be
the work of an anonymous 8th-century Anglian poet who fused Scandinavian history and pagan
mythology with Christian elements.
        Arthur (6th century), semilegendary king of the Britons who fought against the invading Anglo-
Saxons. Although some historians consider him a mythical figure, there is reason to believe that a
historical Arthur may have led the long resistance of the Britons against the invaders. According to
legend, Arthur was the son of Uther Pendragon, king of Britain. Kept in obscurity (темрява) during
childhood, he was suddenly presented to the people as their king. He proved a wise (мудрий) and valiant
(відважний) ruler. He gathered a great company of knights in his court; problems of precedence were
avoided by the use of a round table at gatherings.
        With his queen, Guinevere, he maintained a magnificent court at Caerleon-upon-Usk (perhaps the
legendary Camelot) on the southern border of Wales, where the Britons longest maintained their hold. His
wars and victories extended to the continent of Europe, where he successfully defied the forces of the
Roman Empire until he was called home because of the acts of his nephew Mordred, who had rebelled and
seized his kingdom. In the final battle of Camlan, in southwestern England, the king and the traitor
(зрадник) both fell, pierced by each other's spears. Arthur was mysteriously carried away to the mythical
island of Avalon to be healed of his “grievous (важка) wound.”
        The legends surrounding Saint George are very varied. One of them concerns the famous dragon,
with which he is invariably (постійно) portrayed. According to legend, a pagan town in Libya was being
terrorised by a dragon. The locals kept throwing sheep to it to placate (помирити) it, and when it still
remained unsatisfied, they started sacrificing some of the citizens. Finally the local princess was to be
thrown also to the beast, but Good Saint George came along, slaughtered (вбив) the dragon and rescued
the fair princess. At this the townsfolk converted to Christianity.
        The origin of the legend, which is very well known, came originally from the way in which the
Greek Church honoured George. They venerated (славити) him as a soldier saint and told many stories of
his bravery and protection in battle. The western Christians, joining with the Byzantine Christians in the
Crusades, elaborated and misinterpreted the Greek traditions and devised their own version. The story we
know today of Saint George and the dragon dates from the troubadours of the 14th century.
        Robin Hood, hero of a group of English ballads of the late 14th or early 15th century. Robin Hood
was portrayed as an outlaw (злочинець) who lived and poached (увірватися) in the royal forests of
Sherwood, in Nottinghamshire, and Barnsdale, in Yorkshire. He robbed and killed those who represented
the power of the government and the church and he championed the cause of the needy and oppressed. His
band of comrades included Little John, Will Scarlet, and Friar Tuck. Although scholars disagree as to
whether Robin Hood is a historical figure, the original ballads contain valuable information on the ideas
and social conditions of medieval England. Robin Hood frequently reappears in the works of later writers,
and in the 20th century he has been romanticized in numerous children's books, operettas, dramas, films,
and television programs.
        Traditions and Festivals
        The Maypole was a pagan symbol of fertility. It was often dedicated to the horned god. The strings
or ribbons of many colours were plaited by young maids. This was the rite of spring to ensure the fertility
of the land. The strings or ribbons were plaited round the maypole in different patterns depending on the
town or village. Each would have their own very individual pattern. Originally the strings would have
been vines or springy twigs knotted together to form a long leafy ribbon. Later they would have been
made of string with leaves attached. Then they were replaced with pretty silk ribbons in soft colours
curled round the maypole with the girls dancing in and out of the ribbons in an orchestrated pattern. If the
pole was plaited well and without breaking any of the ribbons, it would bring great good luck to the
village. May blossom was placed on top of the pole, and worn as wreaths and garlands by those girls
taking part in the maypole dance.
        Christmas is Britain's most popular holiday and is characterised by traditions which date back
hundreds of years. The first ever Christmas card was posted in England in the 1840s, and the practice soon
became an established part of the build-up to Christmas. Christmas decorations in general have even
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earlier origins. Holly (падуб), ivy (плющ) and mistletoe (омела) (considered sacred by Druids, was
believed to have many miraculous powers. Among the Romans, it was symbol of peace, and, it was said
that when enemies met under it, they discarded their arms and declared a truce (мир); England was the
first country to use it during the Christmas season) are associated with rituals going back beyond the Dark
Ages. The Christmas tree was popularised by Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria, who introduced
one to the Royal Household in 1840. Since 1947, the country of Norway has presented Britain annually
with a large Christmas tree which stands in Trafalgar Square in commemoration of Anglo-Norwegian
cooperation during the Second World War.
        Carols are often sung on Christmas Eve by groups of singers to their neighbours, and children hang
a stocking on the fireplace or at the foot of their bed for Santa Claus (also named Father Christmas) to fill.
Presents for the family are placed beneath the Christmas tree.
        Christmas Day sees the opening of presents and many families attend Christmas services at church.
Christmas dinner consists traditionally of a roast turkey, goose or chicken with stuffing (начинка) and
roast potatoes. This is followed by mince (начинка) pies and Christmas pudding flaming with brandy,
which might contain coins or lucky charms for children.
        The pulling of Christmas crackers often accompanies food on Christmas Day. Invented by a
London baker in 1846, a cracker is a brightly coloured paper tube, twisted at both ends, which contains a
party hat, riddle and toy or other trinket (дурниця).
        The day after Christmas is known in Britain as Boxing Day, which takes its name from a former
custom of giving a Christmas Box - a gift of money or food inside a box - to the deliverymen and
tradespeople who called regularly during the year. This tradition survives in the custom of tipping the
milkman, postman, dustmen and other callers of good service at Christmas time.
        Shrove Tuesday is the last day before the period which Christians call Lent. This day is one of the
moveable feasts in the church calendar and is directly related to the date on which Easter falls.The name
Shrove comes from the old word "shrive" which means to confess. On Shrove Tuesday, in the Middle
Ages, people used to confess their sins so that they were forgiven before the season of Lent began.
        Shrove Tuesday is also called Pancake Day, or Mardi Gras in France, which means Grease
Tuesday. Pancakes were eaten on this day to use up all the rich foods before lent. Pancakes are eaten and
pancake races are held in villages and towns. The object of the race is to get to the finishing line first,
carrying a frying pan with a cooked pancake in it whilst flipping the pancake a pre-decided number of
times. The skill lies not so much in the running of the race but in flipping and catching the pancake, which
must be intact when the finishing line is reached.
        Guy Fawkes Day is connected with event which took place in 16th century. English conspirator,
born in York а Protestant by birth, Guy Fawkes became a Roman Catholic after the marriage of his
widowed mother to a man of Catholic background and sympathies. He became implicated (причетний)
with Thomas Winter and others in the Gunpowder Plot to blow up Parliament as a protest against the anti-
Roman Catholic laws. On the night of November 4-5, 1605, he was caught in a cellar underneath the
House of Lords and arrested. After severe torture he disclosed the names of his accomplices, and with
them he was hanged. Guy Fawkes Day is celebrated on November 5 in Great Britain and some other parts
of the British Commonwealth with bonfires and fireworks.
        On October 31st, the eve of All Saints Day. The origins of Halloween go back two thousands
years to the Celts. It developed from ancient new year festivals and festivals of the dead. The Celts
celebrated their New Year on November 1st. It was celebrated every year with a festival that marked the
end of the "season of the sun" and the beginning of "the season of darkness and cold." On the eve before
their new year (October 31), it was believed that Samhain (Lord of the Dead and Prince of Darkness)
called together all the dead people. The Celts believed the boundary between the worlds of the living and
the dead became blurred on this night.
        On October 31st, the Druids, would meet in the hilltop in the dark oak forest (oak trees were
considered sacred). The Druids would light fires and offer sacrifices of crops, animals and possibly even
human beings. They told fortunes about the coming year by examining the remains of the animals that had
been sacrificed. As they danced around the fires, the season of the sun passed and the season of darkness
would begin. When the morning arrived the Druids would give an ember (зола) from their fires to each
family who would then take them home to start new cooking fires. These fires would keep the homes
warm and free from evil spirits
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        Fire has always played an important part in Halloween. Fire was very important to the Celts as it
was to all early people. In the old days people lit bonfires to ward away evil spirits and in some places
they used to jump over the fire to bring good luck. Today, we light candles in pumpkin lanterns
(ліхтарики) and then put them outside our homes to ward of evil spirits.
        The Roman festival for remembering the dead was also in October. During this time, the Romans
remembered their goddess, Pomona. She was the goddess of the trees and fruits, and when the Romans
came to Britain, they began to hold these two festivals on the same day as Samhain. Apples probably
became associated with Halloween because of this festival.
        The tradition of dressing in costume for Halloween has both European and Celtic roots. Hundreds
of years ago, winter was an uncertain and frightening time. Food supplies often ran low and, for the many
people afraid of the dark, the short days of winter were full of constant worry. On Halloween, when it was
believed that ghosts came back to the earthly world, people thought that they would encounter
(зіткнутися) ghosts if they left their homes. To avoid being recognized by these ghosts, people would
wear masks when they left their homes after dark so that the ghosts would mistake them for fellow spirits.
On Halloween, to keep ghosts away from their houses, people would place bowls of food outside their
homes to appease (задовольняти) the ghosts and prevent them from attempting to enter.
        "Trick or Treat" was first known as Mischief Night. Halloween was a time for making mischief
(збитки) - many parts of England still recognize this date as Mischief Night - when children would knock
on doors demanding a treat (Trick or Treat) and people would disguise (перевдягатись) themselves as
witches, ghosts, kelpies (водяник) and spunkies, in order to obtain food and money from nervous
householders.
        Hazel Nuts - Girls placed hazel nuts along the front of the fire grate, each one to symbolize one of
her suitors. She could then divine (передбачати) her future husband by chanting, “If you love me, pop
and fly; if you hate me, burn and die”.
        Halloween was sometimes called Nutcrack Night or Snap Apple Night, in England. Families
would sit by the fire and tell stories while they ate apples and nuts.
        Sports
        The English are great lovers of competitive sports and they are proud that many sports originated
in their country.
        Football in any various team games played with a round or elliptical ball. In the Middle Ages in
England football was played by teams formed of whole villages, and there were no clear rules. With
hundred people on each side, the teams struggled to score goals with a ball made of the bladder of a pig.
Football became an orderly game only in the 19th century as we have it today.
        Cricket (“a stick” in Old French) is peculiarly associated with England. Nearly every village has its
cricket club and its own ground where a quiet of Sunday afternoon is broken only by the slap of leather on
willow (бита) and a gentle ripple of applause.
        Other famous sports are tennis which was originated in 1880; speedway – one of the most popular
spectator sports. Especially the motorcycling sport developed from dirt-track racing in open fields; bowls
– the game for individuals, which was known in Britain by the 13th century.
        There is only basic knowledge about England. It is great country with longstanding tradition. Also
it gave a great amount of talented people to the world: Londoner Michael Faraday, who invented that
electricity can be made with the machine; Isaac Newton a famous mathematic and physicist, who
discovered earth gravitation; George Stephenson – designer of locomotive; William Harvey – discoverer
of the blood circulation (16th century); Charles Darwin – famous biologist, who made works in theory of
evolution and natural selection; painters Thomas Gainsborough, William Turner; writers Charles Dickens,
Daniel Defo, Geoffrey Chaucer, well-known playwright William Shakespeare and a lot of others.




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                                         SOURCES

   Microsoft Encarta  ’98 Encyclopedia  1993-1997 Microsoft Corporation
   www.britannia.com
   www.californiamall.com
   www.oldcity.demon.co.uk
   McDowall David, An illustrated history of Britain/ British Library Cataloguing in Publication
    Data, Longman, 1997. – 188 p.
   Pisarevskaya N. Great Britain: history, geography, culture. A textbook. Donetsk: “ЄАІ – ПРЕС”,
    2001. – 296 p. with illustrations in colour 12 p.




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