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Executive Summary
Project Survey of Bemisia tabaci biotype B whitefly (also known as B.
argentifolii) and its natural enemies in the South Pacific
Commissioned organisation CSIRO Entomology
Collaborating institutions Nil
Project leader Dr Paul De Barro
Other Personnel Mr Wilco Liebregts, Dr Mary Carver, Dr Ian Naumann, Dr Malcolm
Hazelman
Date of Commencement 1/9/96
Date of completion 19/6/97
Aims of project 1. To determine the distribution and identity of Bemisia tabaci in
the Pacific Region.
2. To determine the distribution of parasitoids of Bemisia tabaci
as well as other natural enemies.
Description of work
Surveys of American Samoa, Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia (Tahiti), Federated States of
Micronesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua
New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Western Samoa were carried out
between 16/10/96 and 19/6/97. New Caledonia was not sampled as several samples of B. tabaci
had already been received from this country. Sampling involved collecting whiteflies from a range of
crop and weed hosts and sending them under quarantine to Australia where parasitoids were reared.
The various species of Bemisia were initially identified to species by slide mounting the 4th instar
nymph and examining using a microscope and taxonomic key. The biotypes of B. tabaci were
identified using the RAPD PCR technique described in De Barro and Driver (1997). In addition to
Bemisia spp., a range of other whiteflies on crop, weed and ornamental species were also collected.
Parasitoids reared from B. tabaci were also slide mounted and identified. This section of the work is
ongoing as the taxonomy of these agents is not well described.
Results, conclusions and assessments
B. tabaci was found in all countries in the Pacific. Three biotypes including the B biotype were found
(Table 1). In addition, B. leakii group and B. giffardi were found in several countries (Table 1)
Table 1. Distribution of Bemisia spp. and biotypes in the Pacific region
Species Biotype Distribution
B. giffardi Palau, Papua New Guinea
B. leakii group* American Samoa, Fiji, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Palau, Papua New
Guinea, Tonga, Vanuatu,
B. tabaci B Australia, New Zealand, American Samoa, Cook Islands, Fiji, Guam,
Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands,
French Polynesia (Tahiti)
“Nauru”** American Samoa, Fiji, FSM, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru,
Niue, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Western
Samoa
“Australian”*** Australia, New Caledonia, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Islands, Vanuatu
* this group is taxonomically unresolved and also includes B. afer and B. hancocki
** a new biotype also found in Taiwan
Survey of Bemisia tabaci and its natural enemies in the Pacific 2
*** possibly an Austral/Asian biotype
To the present, two parasitoid genera, Encarsia and Eretmocerus have been found parasitising B.
tabaci in the region, Encarsia transvena (Timberlake) in Tahiti, En. strenua (Silvestri) in Tahiti and
Fiji, En. lutea (Masi) Nauru, Cook Islands, Tonga and Niue, sp. indet. P4 (?parvella group) in Nauru
and Cook Islands, En. nigricephala Dozier in Tahiti, Nauru and Guam, sp. indet. P8 (luteola group)
in Tahiti, En. guadeloupae Viggiani in Kiribati and Nauru and En. formosa Gahan in Fiji and Tonga.
One species of Eretmocerus was in Nauru and possibly Guam. The taxonomy of the group to which
it belongs is very unclear. Using molecular and morphological markers, this group, currently denoted
as P2, was found to be very similar to individuals found in Queensland, Australia. Suitable markers
for both Encarsia and Eretmocerus have been developed and will be used to clarify separations made
using morphological characters. No definite predators were found. The insect pathogenic fungus,
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus, was found on the lower leaves of cabbage in French Polynesia (Tahiti).
This can be a highly effective pathogen, but is limited by a requirement for high humidity.
In addition to the Bemisia spp., 32 other species of whitefly have been recorded. Of these, 17
species were either new records for the region or individual countries. These are Aleurocanthus
spiniferus, Aleurothrixus antidesmae, Aleurothrixus floccosus, Aleurotuberculatus neolitseae,
Aleurotuberculatus nr takahashii, Dialeurodes citrifolii, Dialeurodes kirkaldyi, Dialeurodes psidii,
Dialeuropora decempuncta, Dialeuropora sp., Minutaleyrodes minuta, Paraleyrodes bondari,
Parabemisia myricae, Tetraleurodes acaciae, Tetraleurodes nr graminis, Trialeurodes vaporariorum
and Xenaleyrodes artocarpi. Of these, Aleurocanthus spiniferus on Citrus sp., Aleurothrixus
floccosus on Citrus sp., Dialeurodes citrifolii on citrus, Parabemisia myricae on Citrus sp. and
Trialeurodes vaporariorum on vegetables and some fruit crops are known to be pests. This listing of
economic status is based on various reports in the literature.
Conclusions
The project was highly successful and achievements exceeded the scope of the aims. The success
was largely due to the Pacific experience of Mr Wilco Liebregts, the taxonomic experience Dr Mary
Carver (whiteflies) and Dr Ian Naumann (parasitoids), close cooperation with Dr Malcolm Hazelman
during the planning phase of the project and the help given by the various countries. The project
required a two-week extension due to cyclones and spontaneous airline reschedulings. These were
the only problems encountered. The success of this survey suggests that surveys of other groups
could be equally successful.
B. tabaci is found throughout the Pacific with the B biotype being scattered throughout. The current
distribution of the B biotype reflects a strong association with countries with close links with either
France or the USA.
The survey also suggests that quarantine within the Pacific is not effective as far as whiteflies are
concerned. Of the 22 exotic whiteflies found in the Pacific, 17 are either new to the Pacific or to
individual countries. While some of these may have been present in the region long before
quarantine measures were constituted, it is equally possible that current quarantine measures are not
effective in preventing the introduction of these insects. In either case, part of the reason almost
certainly lies in the almost complete lack of knowledge of how to recognise and identify whiteflies.
There is clearly a need to address this problem through the provision of user friendly identification kits
which do not rely on high levels of training.
The influx of whiteflies into this region poses an increased risk to Australia. Two species in particular,
Aleurocanthus woglumi and Parabemisia myricae are both major pests of citrus. In addition, the
heavy, often indiscriminate use of insecticides against B. tabaci, presents a threat of to all countries in
the region, through the potential selection for populations highly resistant to insecticides.
Parasitoid fauna is generally poor although the short nature of each survey may have meant that
some species were missed. The parasitic fungus found in Tahiti might be an effective control agent
when conditions of high humidity prevail.
P.J. De Barro 3
Four countries, Cook Islands, French Polynesia (Tahiti), Guam and New Caledonia are currently
experiencing problems with the B biotype. There have been several suggestions that there is a need
to introduce further control agents as part of a classical biological control program. This is not
considered to be an effective means of controlling this whitefly due to the heavy reliance on chemical
insecticides applied against the whiteflies, which kill the parasites before they can be effective. The
development of IPM strategies is seen as being more advantageous and unless the development of
such programs is behind introductions, introductions of even highly effective agents are unlikely to be
successful.
Publications
Publication of the results of the survey is planned.
Follow-up
The number of new whitefly species identified in the Pacific suggests that there is generally little ability
among South Pacific plant protection personnel to recognise and identify individual species of
whiteflies. Given that some of these insects are potentially damaging pests suggests that there is a
need for training to increase the level of skill in this area. This could be best addressed in two
stages,
1. The publication of a document that combines the records from this survey with those from previous
published and unpublished studies and surveys. Such a document would provide an excellent
resource for each country.
2. Development of a user friendly key or guide to whiteflies. Current keys require a level of expertise
and equipment beyond that generally available. This is not helped by the lack of suitable,
accurate information. As an example, juveniles of B. tabaci are very similar to the those of the B.
leakii group. As adults the two taxa are readily separated, but keys do not use adults. However,
two readily available information sources showing whitefly adults and juveniles have photographs
indicating B. tabaci that are in fact B. leakii group. There is a need for better aids with which to
identify whiteflies that do not rely on high levels of expertise. A user friendly photographic guide
may be the best way to tackle this problem. It is envisaged that such a guide would require little
expertise to use and would greatly enhance the general ability to recognise and identify whiteflies.
Survey of Bemisia tabaci and its natural enemies in the Pacific 4
Final report on ACIAR Project No. 96/148
Background
Bemisia tabaci has long been known as a relatively unimportant agricultural pest in a number of
countries. However, in the early 1980s a new, aggressive form of the whitefly, called the B biotype or
silverleaf whitefly (also known as B. argentifolii), was observed that is capable of inflicting massive
losses to both horticultural and agricultural crops. It has spread rapidly over a wide geographic area,
including recently Australia and at least three South Pacific Countries, Cook Islands, Guam and New
Caledonia. It attacks a wide range of hosts including a wide range of vegetable crops, lucerne and
cotton. It causes damage by direct feeding (sap-sucking which may cause irreversible physiological
disorders in the plant), by contamination with honeydew and sooty mould growing on the honeydew,
and by vectoring geminiviruses.
Biotype B has started to spread in the South Pacific, but its distribution in the region is not known in
detail. Identification relies on the use of molecular markers. At present Pacific countries are
imposing quarantine restrictions on fresh produce coming in from various other countries (including
Australia), causing economic losses, but these restrictions are not based on observed facts. All
countries in the region wish to know which biotypes are in which countries, and at the 1996 SPC
Regional Technical Plant Protection Meeting they passed a Level 1 recommendation urging SPC to
organise a survey of the region. SPC could not undertake this itself, and passed the request to
ACIAR to engage the CSIRO Entomology team currently doing surveys in Australia for a number of
grower organisations.
The project proposed to survey most of the South Pacific countries for B. tabaci. At the same time
natural enemies of B. tabaci were to be collected to provide baseline information on their distributions.
This work aimed to provide a scientific basis for quarantine policies in relation to this whitefly, and will
also give countries a better understanding from which to devise workable IPM practices.
Objectives
1. To collect all biotypes of B. tabaci in key localities in Western Samoa, Cook Islands, Fiji, Federated
States of Micronesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Northern Mariana Islands, Niue,
Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Western Samoa, and time
permitting, also French Polynesia and New Caledonia.
2. To use existing molecular marker techniques to distinguish the biotype(s) present in each
collection.
3. At the same time as the collections in (1) are made, to collect natural enemies associated with the
whiteflies, especially their parasitoids.
4. To develop molecular marker techniques for identification of the parasitoids collected in (3).
Description of project
The project involved the services of 6 CSIRO Entomology staff members, Dr Paul De Barro (Project
Leader, Bemisia biotype identification, morphological identification of whiteflies, surveys), Mr Wilco
Liebregts (surveys), Mr Peter Hart (rearing whitefly parasitoids under quarantine, Bemisia biotype
identification), Dr Mary Carver (morphological identification of whiteflies), Dr Ian Naumann
(morphological identification of parasitoids), Ms Felice Driver and Mrs Leslie McKenzie (molecular
separation of parasitoids). In addition, the local plant protection personnel of the various countries
visited provided invaluable assistance in locating suitable collecting areas, providing guides, transport
and laboratory facilities.
The survey commenced on 16/10/97 and concluded on 19/6/97. Dr De Barro and Mr Liebregts
carried out the surveys of Cook Islands, Nauru and Fiji during which time Mr Liebregts was trained in
whitefly and parasitoid identification. The remaining surveys were carried out by Mr Liebregts, with
the exception of Papua New Guinea, which was surveyed by both Dr De Barro and Mr Liebregts and
French Polynesia (Tahiti) which was surveyed by Dr De Barro. The total time spent on the surveys
was 70 days, not including transit time and pre- and post-survey preparation.
P.J. De Barro 5
Surveys involved collecting plant material infested with whiteflies and removing some whiteflies into
alcohol. Plants examined included vegetable crops, herbaceous weeds, ornamental species and
tree fruits. Where possible both adults and nymphs were preserved in alcohol. This was especially
important where heavy parasitism was evident. Adults are never parasitised and so their use in
biotype determination avoided the risk of contaminating parasitoid DNA. The remaining plant
material was placed into plastic bread bags which were kept refrigerated. Plant material was air
freighted to Australia under quarantine to the Black Mountain high security quarantine facility. Here,
plant material was placed in emergence cages for 4 weeks. Any emerged parasitoids were removed
into gelatine capsules for identification. Parasitoids were reared from both B. tabaci and
Trialeurodes vaporariorum. The latter was included as many of its parasitoids also attack B. tabaci.
B. tabaci were identified morphologically followed by the use of RAPD PCR to determine the biotype.
Morphological identification of B. tabaci and other whiteflies involved slide-mounting individuals
followed by examination using a compound microscope with phase contrast. A number of different
keys and many descriptions were used in the identifications, but the principal key was Martin (1987).
Research results and outcomes
Bemisia spp.
Bemisia tabaci was found in all countries on a range of vegetable and weed species. These included
broccoli, cabbage, cassava, cucumber, egg plant, okra, poinsettia, potato, pumpkin, sweetpotato,
taro, tomato, zucchini, Ageratum sp., Cleome viscosa, Coleus sp., Crassocephalum crepidoides,
Desmodium sp., Emilia sonchifolia, Euphorbia cyathophora, Euphorbia hirta, Euphorbia glomifera,
Ficus sp., Lantana camara, Merremia umbellata, Phyllanthus amarus, Phyllanthus sp., Solanum
torvum, Solanum melongena, Syndrella sp., Veronia cinerea and Xanthosoma sagittifolium. In the
Pacific region, B. tabaci was previously known from Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, Guam, Hawaii,
Kiribati, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pohnpei (FSM), New Caledonia, Northern Mariana Islands,
Solomon Islands, Truk (FSM), Vanuatu and Yap (FSM). B. tabaci is now known to be also in
American and Western Samoa, Kosrae, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Tahiti,
Tonga and Tuvalu. Three biotypes including the B biotype were found (Table 2). In addition, B.
leakii group and B. giffardi were found in several countries (Table 2).
The Bemisia leakii group is a complex which is probably more confused than the B. tabaci group.
The group may contain at least three described species, B. leakii, B. afer and B. hancocki. In the
Pacific, its main hosts are hibiscus, taro and Erythrina variegata. B. leakii has been described from
the latter two hosts and has been previously described from Fiji and Tahiti. B. hancocki has not
been described from the Pacific and has an African/southern European distribution. B. afer has
been described from Egypt. None of the members of this group is considered to be a pest.
Juveniles of this group are superficially similar to B. tabaci although the adults are quite dissimilar.
The members of the B. leakii group seen in the Pacific hold their wings in a delta wing pattern which
covers the abdomen completely whereas B. tabaci hold their wings in a tent-like shape over the
abdomen, slightly apart so that the abdomen is visible. Some literature records of B. tabaci on taro
may be incorrect as available literature in the Pacific is usually accompanied by photographs of adults
which are not B. tabaci, but rather belong to members of the B. leakii group. The B. leakii group has
been previously identified from India, Fiji and French Polynesia (Tahiti) is now also known from
American Samoa, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Papua New Guinea and Tonga.
Bemisia giffardi was found only on Citrus spp.. This is a widely distributed species previously known
from Hawaii and New Caledonia as well as Australia and the Asian region. It is now known to be in
Palau and Papua New Guinea.
Non-Bemisia whiteflies
In addition to species of Bemisia, 32 other whitefly species were also collected. The identity and
distribution of these whiteflies is presented in Table 3. Of the exotic species, 17 represent either new
records for individual countries or for the region as a whole (Table 4, Appendix 1). Of these
Survey of Bemisia tabaci and its natural enemies in the Pacific 6
Aleurocanthus spiniferus on Citrus sp., Aleurothrixus floccosus on Citrus sp., Dialeurodes citrifolii on
citrus, Parabemisia myricae on Citrus sp. and Trialeurodes vaporariorum on vegetables and some
fruit crops are known to be pests. The potential pest status of each non-Bemisia whitefly species
found during the survey is indicated in Table 5. Further country-by-country details including host
records are detailed in Appendix 2.
Table 6 suggests that quarantine within the Pacific is not effective as far as whiteflies are concerned.
Of the 22 exotic whiteflies found in the Pacific, 17 are either new to the Pacific or to individual
countries. While some of these may have been present in the region long before quarantine
measures were constituted, it is equally possible that current quarantine measures are not effective in
preventing the introduction of these insects. In either case, part of the reason almost certainly lies in
the almost complete lack of knowledge of how to recognise and identify whiteflies. There is clearly a
need to address this problem through the provision of user friendly identification kits which do not rely
on high levels of training.
The influx of whiteflies into this region poses an increased risk to Australia. Two species in particular,
Aleurocanthus woglumi and Parabemisia myricae are both major pests of citrus. In addition, the
heavy, often indiscriminate use of insecticides against B. tabaci, presents a threat of to all countries in
the region, through the potential selection for populations highly resistant to insecticides.
Natural enemies
No definite predators were found during the survey. There were a number of predatory beetles,
especially coccinellids, but as mites and aphids were often also present it was impossible to
determine whether or not they were feeding on Bemisia tabaci.
The insect pathogenic fungus, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus, was found on the lower leaves of
cabbage in French Polynesia (Tahiti). This can be a highly effective insect pathogen, but is limited
by a requirement for high humidity.
While parasitised B. tabaci pupae were found in most countries, the percentage of emergence of
adult parasitoids was low. Nine species of hymenopterous parasites in the genera Encarsia and
Eretmocerus (Chalcidoidea: Aphelinidae) were reared from B. tabaci. The species of Encarsia were
E. transvena (Timberlake) in Tahiti, E. strenua (Silvestri) in Tahiti and Fiji, E. lutea (Masi) Nauru,
Cook Islands, Niue and Tonga, sp. indet. P4 (?parvella group) in Nauru and Cook Islands, E.
nigricephala Dozier in Tahiti, Nauru and Guam, sp. indet. P8 (luteola group) in Tahiti, E.
guadeloupae Viggiani in Kiribati and Nauru and E. formosa Gahan in Fiji and Tonga. The one
species of Eretmocerus occurred in Nauru and possibly Guam. The taxonomy of this group is very
unclear. Using molecular and morphological markers, this group, currently denoted as P2, is very
similar to individuals found in Queensland, Australia. Suitable markers for both genera have been
developed and will be used to clarify separations made using morphological characters. The world
wide distributions and known host ranges of these species are given in Appendix 3.
While the parasitoid fauna is considered depauperate, it is not considered appropriate that further
introductions be made as part of classical biological control programs. This is because the heavy
reliance on insecticides in the crops attacked by the B biotype is likely to prevent effective biological
control. Introductions should only be considered if they form part of the development of IPM
strategies. The parasitoid data are as yet incomplete and will be added to as the identification
process proceeds over the next 12 months.
It is not possible to determine whether any of the parasitoids found during the survey have the
potential to control the B biotype as the heavy use of insecticides tended to exclude the parasitoids
from crops.
Conclusions
1. Determined the identity and distribution of B. tabaci biotypes in the Pacific region.
P.J. De Barro 7
2. Indication that many exotic whitefly species are invading and spreading throughout the Pacific,
suggesting that quarantine measures are ineffective, a situation which is partly due to the fact that
the general ability to recognise and identify whiteflies is almost non-existent.
3. Indicated that while the parasitoid fauna is low, the heavy reliance on insecticides rules out the
introduction of new agents as part of classical biological control programs. Instead, any
introductions of control agents against B. tabaci should be made part of integrated pest
management programs.
4. The heavy reliance on insecticides without any effective insecticide resistance management
program suggests that within the next 12 to 24 months a number of countries will be facing the
prospect of having to control highly resistant insects. The prospect of accidental introduction of
highly resistant insects into unaffected countries is high and poses a threat above that currently
posed by the B biotype.
5. Demonstrated the need for a user-friendly identification kit based on photographs to increase the
ability of quarantine officers and research and technical personnel to recognise and identify
whiteflies.
Follow-up
The number of new whitefly species identified in the Pacific suggests that there is a general inability to
recognise and identify whiteflies. Given that some of these insects are potentially damaging pests
suggests that there is a need for training to increase the level of skill in this area. This could be best
addressed in two stages,
1. The publication of a document that combines the records from this survey with those from previous
published and unpublished studies and surveys. Such a document would provide an excellent
resource for each country.
2. Development of a user friendly key or guide to whiteflies. Current keys require a level of expertise
and equipment beyond that generally available. This is not helped by the lack of suitable,
accurate information. As an example, juveniles of B. tabaci are very similar to the those of the B.
leakii group. As adults the two taxa are readily separated, but keys do not use adults. However,
two readily available information sources showing whitefly adults and juveniles, have photographs
indicating B. tabaci that are in fact B. leakii group. There is a need for better aids with which to
identify whiteflies that do not rely on high levels of expertise. A user friendly photographic guide
may be the best way to tackle this problem. It is envisaged that such a guide would require little
expertise to use and would greatly enhance the general ability to recognise and identify whiteflies.
Bibliography
De Barro PJ, Driver F (1997) Use of RAPD PCR to distinguish the B biotype from other biotypes of
Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). Australian Journal of Entomology 36:
149-152.
Martin JH (1987) An identification guide to common whitefly pest species of the world. Tropical Pest
Management 33: 298-322.
P.J. De Barro
8
Table 2. Distribution of Bemisia spp. and biotypes in the Pacific region
Whitefly Species AmS CoI Fij Kos Poh Tru Yap Gua Kir MaI Nau NCa Niu NMI Pal PNG SI FrP Ton Tuv Van WSa
Bemisia giffardi xn xn
n n n n
Bemisia leakii group* x x* x x x xn xn xn
n n
Bemisia tabaci - “Australian”*** x x xn xn x
n n n n
Bemisia tabaci - B x x x x x x x x xn
Bemisia tabaci - “Nauru”** xn xn xn xn xn xn xn x xn xn xn x x xn xn
* this group is taxonomically unresolved and also includes B. afer and B. hancocki
** a new biotype also found in Taiwan
*** possibly an Austro/Asian biotype
x = B. tabaci previously recorded, although the biotype may have been unknown, xn = new record, x* = mis-identified as B. tabaci
Country abbreviations
AmS American Samoa
CoI Cook Islands
Fij Fiji
Kos Kosrae (FSM)
Poh Pohnpei (FSM)
Tru Truk (FSM)
Yap Yap (FSM)
Gua Guam
Kir Kiribati
MaI Marshall Islands
Nau Nauru
NCa New Caledonia
Niu Niue
NMI Northern Mariana Islands
Pal Palau
PNG Papua New Guinea
SI Solomon Islands
FrP French Polynesia
Ton Tonga
Tuv Tuvalu
Van Vanuatu
WSa Western Samoa
P.J. De Barro
9
Table 3. Distribution of non-Bemisia whiteflies in the Pacific found during the 1996/7 whitefly survey (see Appendix for further details)
Whitefly Species AmS CoI Fij Kos Poh Tru Yap Gua Kir MaI Nau Niu NMI Pal PNG SI FrP Ton Tuv Van WSa
Aleurocanthus spiniferus x x x x
Aleurocanthus woglumi x
Aleurodicus dispersus x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Aleurothrixus antidesmae x x x
Aleurothrixus floccosus x x
Aleurotuberculatus neolitseae x
Aleurotuberculatus nr takahashii x x
Dialeurodes citrifolii x x x x
Dialeurodes kirkaldyi x
Dialeurodes psidii x
Dialeuropora decempuncta x x x x
Dialeuropora sp. x x x x x x x x
Minutaleyrodes minuta x x x x x x x x
Neomaskellia bergii x x x x x x x x
Orchamoplatus mammaeferus x x x x x x x
Parabemisia myricae x x
Paraleyrodes bondari x x x
Tetraleurodes acaciae x
Tetraleurodes nr graminis x
Trialeurodes vaporariorum x x x
Xenaleyrodes artocarpi x x
Xenaleyrodes broughae x
Xenaleyrodes timonii x
Tetraleurodes sp. 1 x
Tetraleurodes sp. 2 x
Tetraleurodes sp. 3 x
Pealius sp. 1 x
Pealius sp. 2 x
Aleurolobus sp. x
Aleurotrachelus sp. x
Survey of Bemisia tabaci and its natural enemies in the Pacific 10
Table 4. Exotic vs indigenous whitefly species found in the 1996/7 survey
Whitefly Species AmS CoI Fij Kos Poh Tru Yap Gua Kir MaI Nau Niu NMI Pal PNG SI FrP Ton Tuv Van WSa
Aleurocanthus spiniferus en en e en
Aleurocanthus woglumi e
Aleurodicus dispersus e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
Aleurothrixus antidesmae en en en
Aleurothrixus floccosus e e
Aleurotuberculatus neolitseae en
Aleurotuberculatus nr takahashii en en
Dialeurodes citrifolii en en en en
Dialeurodes kirkaldyi en
Dialeurodes psidii en
Dialeuropora decempuncta en en en en
Dialeuropora sp. en en e en en en en en
Minutaleyrodes minuta en en en en en en en en
Neomaskellia bergii e e e e e e e e
Orchamoplatus mammaeferus e e en en en en e
Parabemisia myricae en en
Paraleyrodes bondari en en en
Tetraleurodes acaciae en
Tetraleurodes nr graminis en
Trialeurodes vaporariorum en en en
Xenaleyrodes artocarpi e en
Xenaleyrodes broughae u
Xenaleyrodes timonii u
Tetraleurodes sp. 1 u
Tetraleurodes sp. 2 u
Tetraleurodes sp. 3 u
Pealius sp. 1 u
Pealius sp. 2 u
Aleurolobus sp. u
Aleurotrachelus sp. u
e=exotic, en=exotic & new record, u=unknown, but presumed to be indigenous
P.J. De Barro
11
Table 5. Potential pest status of non-Bemisia type whiteflies found in the 1996/7 survey
Whitefly Species AmS CoI Fij Kos Poh Tru Yap Gua Kir MaI Nau Niu NMI Pal PNG SI FrP Ton Tuv Van WSa
Aleurocanthus spiniferus p p p p
Aleurocanthus woglumi ppp
Aleurodicus dispersus ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp
Aleurothrixus antidesmae x x x
Aleurothrixus floccosus p p
Aleurotuberculatus neolitseae x
Aleurotuberculatus nr takahashii x x
Dialeurodes citrifolii p p p p
Dialeurodes kirkaldyi x
Dialeurodes psidii x
Dialeuropora decempuncta x x x x
Dialeuropora sp. x x x x x x x x
Minutaleyrodes minuta x x x x x x x x
Neomaskellia bergii x x x x x x x x
Orchamoplatus mammaeferus x x x x x x x
Parabemisia myricae ppp ppp
Paraleyrodes bondari u u u
Tetraleurodes acaciae x
Tetraleurodes nr graminis x
Trialeurodes vaporariorum pp pp pp
Xenaleyrodes artocarpi x x
Xenaleyrodes broughae x
Xenaleyrodes timonii x
Tetraleurodes sp. 1 x
Tetraleurodes sp. 2 x
Tetraleurodes sp. 3 x
Pealius sp. 1 x
Pealius sp. 2 x
Aleurolobus sp. x
Aleurotrachelus sp. x
ppp - serious pest potential
pp - potential to be a serious pest in protected cropping situations
p - minor pest, occasional records indicating insecticide intervention required
x - not known to be a pest
u - pest status unknown
Survey of Bemisia tabaci and its natural enemies in the Pacific 12
Table 6. The number of exotic and indigenous whitefly species found in the 1996/7 Pacific whitefly survey, and the number of new exotic records
Whitefly Species AmS CoI Fij Kos Poh Tru Yap Gua Kir MaI Nau Niu NMI Pal PNG SI FrP Ton Tuv Van WSa
Number of exotic species found 7 3 7 2 3 2 2 7 2 4 5 6 8 9 16 4 5 6 2 4 9
Number of indigenous species 1? 9
Number of new exotic records 6 1 5 1 2 1 1 5 1 3 4 5 6 5 13 1 4 4 1 3 6
P.J. De Barro
13
Appendix 1
Summary of new non-Bemisia records for the Pacific
1. Minutaleyrodes minuta on Gardenia sp., guava and Ixora sp.. This species was
previously known from India, but has now been found on this survey to be present in the
Pacific in several countries. It is not known to be a pest. Now known to be in American
Samoa, Kosrae, Pohnpei and Yap, Northern Mariana Islands (Saipan), Palau, Papua New
Guinea and Western Samoa.
2. Trialeurodes vaporariorum on Sonchus oleraceus, Ageratum conyzoides and Cuphea
carthaginensis. This is a common and at times serious pest, especially of greenhouses.
In the Pacific it is known from Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii and Papua New Guinea.
Elsewhere it is widely distributed. Now known to be also in Fiji, Tahiti and Tonga.
3. Dialeurodes citrifolii on citrus. This species has previously been known in the Pacific only
from Western Samoa and elsewhere from India, Japan, China, Vietnam, Caribbean,
Central America, Brazil, Venezuela and the southern USA. It is a pest of citrus. Now
known to be in Pohnpei, Palau and Western Samoa.
4. Aleurocanthus spiniferus on citrus. This is a minor pest of citrus. In the Pacific it was
previously known from the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau and Hawaii. Elsewhere it is
widely distributed through south-east Asia and central Africa and is widely distributed
through the warmer parts of world. It is known from Australia. Now known to be also in
Papua New Guinea, Truk and Guam.
5. Aleurothrixus floccosus on lime. This is a minor pest of citrus and has been previously
found in Guam. Elsewhere, it is known from the southern USA, Caribbean, Central and
South America, Reunion Island, Angola, Congo, Canary Islands, Spain and Madeira.
Now known to be also in the Northern Mariana Islands.
6. Dialeuropora decempuncta on Annona reticulata and Ficus sp.. In the Pacific it has
been previously described from New Caledonia and Tonga. Elsewhere it has been
recorded from India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaya and Taiwan. It is
not known to be a pest. Now known to be in Guam, Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Islands and Northern Mariana Islands.
7. Tetraleurodes acaciae on papaya. This is an unusual record. It has been recorded from
Mexico, southern USA and Jamaica. It is new to the Pacific. Now known to be in Guam.
8. Aleurothrixus antidesmae on Barringtonia sp., Calophyllum inophyllum and taro. This
whitefly was previously known only from Taiwan. Its pest status is unknown. Now known
to be in Nauru, Tahiti and Western Samoa.
9. Dialeurodes kirkaldyi on Morinda citrifolia. This is a widely distributed species and has
been recorded from several Pacific countries including the Society and Tuamotu Islands,
Northern Mariana Islands, New Caledonia, Palau and Hawaiian Islands as well as Africa,
south-east Asia, Caribbean, USA, Taiwan, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Australia, Japan,
Middle East. It is not regarded as a pest. Now known to be in Nauru.
10.Paraleyrodes bondari on citrus. This is a new record for the Pacific. It has been
previously recorded only from Brazil. Now known to be in Northern Mariana Islands (Rota
Island), French Polynesia (Tahiti) and Western Samoa.
11.Dialeuropora sp. on breadfruit and Ipomea batatas. It is different from D. decempuncta
which is known from New Caledonia, Tonga, southeast Asia, India and Pakistan. It is not
regarded as a pest. Known to be in Fiji, Kiribati, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Tonga,
Vanuatu and Western Samoa.
12.Parabemisia myricae on Gardenia sp. and Rollinia sp.. This was previously known only
from Cyprus, Israel, Japan, Malaysia, south eastern USA, Taiwan and Turkey. It is a pest
of citrus. Now known to be in American and Western Samoa. Considered to be a major
pest of citrus in California and the Eastern Mediterranean.
13.Aleurotuberculatus nr takahashii on citrus. This is not regarded as a pest. It is not
known from the Pacific and most probably originated from India. It is now known to be in
Guam and Papua New Guinea.
14.Dialeurodes psidii on breadfruit at Gabensis and Rabaul (PNG). It is not known from the
Pacific and has been previously recorded from Malaysia. It is not known to be a pest.
Survey of Bemisia tabaci and its natural enemies in the Pacific 14
15.Xenaleyrodes artocarpi on Acacia auriculiformis at Bololo (PNG). This has been
previously described from Palau and is not regarded as a pest.
16.Aleurotuberculatus neolitseae on breadfruit and jack fruit at Bololo, Gabensis and Rabaul
(PNG). It is not known from the Pacific and has been previously recorded from Taiwan
and Malaysia. It is not known to be a pest.
17.Tetraleurodes nr graminis on Rottboellia exalta and Acacia auriculiformis at Bololo and
Timimi (PNG). It is not known to be a pest.
Of these Aleurocanthus spiniferus on citrus, Aleurothrixus floccosus on Citrus sp.,
Dialeurodes citrifolii on citrus, Parabemisia myricae on Citrus sp. and Trialeurodes
vaporariorum on vegetables and some fruit crops are known to be pests.
Another pest whitefly found was Aleurocanthus woglumi on citrus and Annona reticulata at
Bundun and Bololo in Papua New Guinea. This is a serious pest of citrus. In the Pacific it
is known from Papua New Guinea and Hawaii. Elsewhere, it is widely distributed through the
warmer parts of the world. It is not known from Australia.
P.J. De Barro
15
Appendix 2
Country by country breakdown of non-Bemisia whitefly found during the 1996/7
survey
American Samoa (18/19 February 1996)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific.
2. Minutaleyrodes minuta on Gardenia sp.. This species was previously known only from
India, but has now been found on this survey to be present in the Pacific in several
countries. It is not known to be a pest.
3. Dialeuropora sp. on breadfruit. It is different from D. decempuncta which is known from
New Caledonia, Tonga, southeast Asia, India and Pakistan. It is not known to be a pest.
4. Parabemisia myricae on Gardenia sp. and Rollinia sp.. This was previously known only
from Cyprus, Israel, Japan, Malaysia, south eastern USA, Taiwan and Turkey. It is a pest
of citrus.
Cook Islands (19 to 21 October 1996)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific.
2. Orchamoplatus mammaeferus, on croton and citrus. It has been previously described
from American and Western Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Tahiti and Marquesas Islands. It
is not regarded as a pest.
Fiji (31 October to 1 November 1996)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific.
2. Dialeuropora sp. on breadfruit. It is different from D. decempuncta which is known from
New Caledonia, Tonga, southeast Asia, India and Pakistan. It is not regarded as a pest.
3. Orchamoplatus mammaeferus, on croton. It has been previously described from American
and Western Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Tahiti and Marquesas Islands. It is not regarded
as a pest.
4. Greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum on Sonchus oleraceus, Ageratum
conyzoides and Cuphea carthaginensis. This is a common and at times serious pest,
especially of greenhouses. In the Pacific it is known from Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii
and Papua New Guinea. Elsewhere it is widely distributed.
Kosrae, Pohnpei, Truk and Yap (14 November to 10 December 1996)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus, all islands. It is widely distributed throughout
the Pacific.
2. Dialeurodes citrifolii on citrus, Pohnpei. This species has previously been known in the
Pacific only from Western Samoa and elsewhere from India, Japan, China, Vietnam,
Caribbean, Central America, Brazil, Venezuela and the southern USA. It is a pest of
citrus.
3. Minutaleyrodes minuta on guava, Kosrae, Pohnpei and Yap. This species was previously
known only from India, but has now been found on this survey to be present in the Pacific
in several countries. It is not known to be a pest.
4. Aleurocanthus spiniferus on citrus, Truk. This is a minor pest of citrus. In the Pacific it
was previously known from Northern Mariana Islands, Palau and Hawaii. Elsewhere it is
widely distributed through south-east Asia and central Africa. Elsewhere it is widely
distributed through the warmer parts of world. It is known from Australia.
Guam (25/26 November 1996)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific.
Survey of Bemisia tabaci and its natural enemies in the Pacific 16
2. Aleurothrixus floccosus on lime. This is a minor pest of citrus which has been previously
recorded in Guam. It is known from the southern USA, Caribbean, Central and South
America, Reunion Island, Angola, Congo, Canary Islands, Spain and Madeira.
3. Dialeuropora decempuncta on Annona reticulata. In the Pacific it has been previously
described from New Caledonia and Tonga. Elsewhere it has been recorded from India,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaya and Taiwan. It is not known to be a
pest.
4. Aleurocanthus spiniferus on citrus. This is a minor pest of citrus. In the Pacific it was
previously known from the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau and Hawaii. Elsewhere it is
widely distributed through south east Asia and central Africa. Elsewhere it is widely
distributed through the warmer parts of world. It is known from Australia.
5. Tetraleurodes acaciae on papaya. This is an unusual record. It has been recorded from
Mexico, southern USA and Jamaica. It is new to the Pacific.
6. Aleurotuberculatus nr takahashii on citrus. This is not regarded as a pest. It is not
known from the Pacific and most probably originated from India.
7. Dialeurodes citrifolii on citrus. This species has previously been known in the Pacific only
from Western Samoa and elsewhere from India, Japan, China, Vietnam, Caribbean,
Central America, Brazil, Venezuela and the southern USA. It is a pest of citrus.
Kiribati (17 to 19 June 1997)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific.
2. Dialeuropora sp. on Ipomoea batatas. It is different from D. decempuncta which is
known from New Caledonia, Tonga, southeast Asia, India and Pakistan. It is not
regarded as a pest.
Marshall Islands, Majuro and Ebeye Island (13 to 14 December 1996)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus on both islands. It is widely distributed
throughout the Pacific.
Nauru (25 to 28 October 1996)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific.
2. Aleurothrixus antidesmae on Calophyllum inophyllum. This whitefly was previously
known only from Taiwan. Its pest status is unknown.
3. Dialeurodes kirkaldyi on Morinda citrifolia. This is a widely distributed species and has
been recorded from several Pacific countries including the Society and Tuamotu Islands,
Northern Mariana Islands, New Caledonia, Palau and Hawaiian Islands as well as Africa,
south east Asia, Caribbean, USA, Taiwan, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Australia, Japan,
Middle East. It is not regarded as a pest.
Niue (27/28 May 1997)
1. Orchamoplatus mammaeferus, on croton. It has been previously described from American
and Western Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Tahiti and Marquesas Islands. It is not regarded
as a pest.
2. Dialeuropora sp. on breadfruit. It is different to D. decempuncta which is known from
New Caledonia, Tonga, southeast Asia, India and Pakistan. It is not regarded as a pest.
3. Neomaskellia bergii on sugar cane. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific. It is
not a serious pest of sugar cane.
Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan and Rota Islands (29/30 November 1996)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus on both islands. It is widely distributed
throughout the Pacific.
2. Aleurothrixus floccosus on lemon on both islands. This is a minor pest of citrus and has
been previously found in Guam. Elsewhere, it is known from the southern USA,
P.J. De Barro
17
Caribbean, Central and South America, Reunion Island, Angola, Congo, Canary Islands,
Spain and Madeira.
3. Dialeuropora decempuncta on Annona reticulata on Rota island. In the Pacific it has
been previously described from New Caledonia and Tonga. Elsewhere it has been
recorded from India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaya and Taiwan. It is
not known to be a pest.
4. Neomaskellia bergii on sugar cane. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific. It is
not a serious pest.
5. Minutaleyrodes minuta on Ixora sp. on Saipan. This species was previously known only
from India, but has now been found on this survey to be present in the Pacific in several
countries. It is not known to be a pest.
6. Paraleyrodes bondari on citrus. This is a new record for the Pacific. It has been
previously recorded only from Brazil. Now known to be in Rota Island (Northern Mariana
Islands), Tahiti and Western Samoa.
Palau (2/3 December 1996)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific.
2. Minutaleyrodes minuta on Ixora sp.. This species was previously known only from India,
but has now been found on this survey to be present in the Pacific in several countries. It
is not known to be a pest.
3. Neomaskellia bergii on sugar cane. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific. It is
not a serious pest.
4. Dialeurodes citrifolii on citrus. This species has previously been known in the Pacific only
from Western Samoa and elsewhere from India, Japan, China, Vietnam, Caribbean,
Central America, Brazil, Venezuela and the southern USA. It is a pest of citrus.
5. Xenaleyrodes artocarpi on breadfruit. This has been previously described from Palau
and is not regarded as a pest.
6. Aleurocanthus spiniferus on citrus. This is not regarded as a pest. In the Pacific it was
previously known from the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau and Hawaii. Elsewhere it is
widely distributed through south-east Asia and central Africa. Elsewhere it is widely
distributed through the warmer parts of world. It is known from Australia.
Papua New Guinea (27/30 April 1997)
1. Minutaleyrodes minuta on guava and Ixora sp. at Port Moresby, Lae and Rabaul. This
species was previously known only from India, but has now been found on this survey to
be present in the Pacific in several countries. It is not known to be a pest.
2. Aleurocanthus spiniferus on Barringtonia sp. and Hibiscus sp. at Port Moresby and
Rabaul. This is a minor pest of citrus. In the Pacific it was previously known from
Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua and New Guinea and Hawaii. Elsewhere it is
widely distributed through south east Asia and central Africa. Elsewhere it is widely
distributed through the warmer parts of world. It is known from Australia. Now known to
be in Truk and Guam.
3. Aleurocanthus woglumi on citrus and Annona reticulata at Bundun, Bololo. This is a
serious pest of citrus. It the Pacific it is known from Papua New Guinea and Hawaii.
Elsewhere it is widely distributed through the warmer parts of the world. It is not known
from Australia.
4. Dialeuropora decempuncta on taro at Rabaul. In the Pacific it has been previously
described from New Caledonia and Tonga. Elsewhere it has been recorded from India,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaya and Taiwan. It is not known to be a
pest.
5. Dialeuropora sp. on Barringtonia sp. and breadfruit at Port Moresby and Rabaul. It is
different to D. decempuncta which is known from New Caledonia, Tonga, southeast Asia,
India and Pakistan. It is not regarded as a pest.
6. Aleurotuberculatus nr takahashii on Triphasia trifolia at Port Moresby. This is not
regarded as a pest. It is not known from the Pacific and most probably originated from
India.
Survey of Bemisia tabaci and its natural enemies in the Pacific 18
7. Aleurodicus dispersus on Euphorbia heterophylla, Spermacoce nr assurgens, papaya,
cassava and chilli at Bundun, Lae, Port Moresby and Rabaul. It is widely distributed
throughout the Pacific.
8. Orchamoplatus mammaeferus, on croton at Port Moresby and Rabaul. It has been
previously described from American and Western Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Tahiti and
Marquesas Islands. It is not regarded as a pest.
9. Neomaskellia bergii on sugar cane at Rabaul. It is widely distributed throughout the
Pacific. It is not a serious pest of sugar cane.
10.Dialeurodes psidii on breadfruit at Gabensis and Rabaul. It is not known from the Pacific
and has been previously recorded from Malaysia. It is not known to be a pest.
11.Xenaleyrodes artocarpi on Acacia auriculiformis at Bololo. This has been previously
described from Palau and is not regarded as a pest.
12.Aleurotuberculatus neolitseae on breadfruit and jack fruit at Bololo, Gabensis and Rabaul.
It is not known from the Pacific and has been previously recorded from Taiwan and
Malaysia. It is not known to be a pest.
13.Tetraleurodes nr graminis on Rottboellia exalta and Acacia auriculiformis at Bololo and
Timimi. It is not known to be a pest.
The following species were also found and are probably indigenous to Papua New Guinea:
1. Xenaleyrodes timonii on guava at Port Moresby.
2. Xenaleyrodes broughae on Citrus sp. at Bundun.
3. Tetraleurodes sp. 1 on croton, Annona reticulata and Acalypha sp. at Bololo, Rabaul.
4. Tetraleurodes sp. 2 on Sida sp. at Gabensis.
5. Tetraleurodes sp. 3 on guava, Ficus sp., Triumfetta sp. and breadfruit at Gabensis, Port
Moresby and Rabaul.
6. Pealius sp. 1 on guava at Port Moresby.
7. Pealius sp. 2 on breadfruit and Ficus sp. at Gabensis.
8. Aleurolobus sp. on Erythrina variegata at Lae and Port Moresby.
9. Aleurotrachelus sp. on guava at Port Moresby.
None of these is regarded as a pest.
Solomon Islands (16 to 18 April 1997)
1. Orchamoplatus mammaeferus, on croton. It has been previously described from American
and Western Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Tahiti and Marquesas Islands. It is not regarded
as a pest.
2. Dialeuropora decempuntata on Ficus sp.. In the Pacific it has been previously described
from New Caledonia and Tonga. Elsewhere it has been recorded from India, Pakistan,
Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaya and Taiwan. It is not known to be a pest.
3. spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus. It is widely distributed throught the Pacific.
French Polynesia (Tahiti, 16/17 October 1996)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific.
2. Aleurothrixus antidesmae on Barringtonia sp. and taro. This whitefly was previously
known only from Taiwan. It is not known to be a pest.
3. Paraleyrodes bondari on citrus. This is a new record for the Pacific. It has been
previously recorded only from Brazil. Now known to be in Rota Island (Northern Mariana
Islands), Tahiti and Western Samoa.
4. Greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum, on Sonchus oleraceus, Ageratum
conyzoides and Cuphea carthaginensis. This is a common and at times serious pest,
especially of greenhouses. In the Pacific it is known from Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii
and Papua New Guinea. Elsewhere it is widely distributed.
Tonga (27 May to 1 June 1997)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific.
P.J. De Barro
19
2. Orchamoplatus mammaeferus, on croton and citrus It has been previously described from
American and Western Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Tahiti and Marquesas Islands. It is not
regarded as a pest.
3. Trialeurodes vaporariorum on Sonchus oleraceus, Ageratum conyzoides and Cuphea
carthaginensis. This is a common and at times serious pest, especially of greenhouses.
In the Pacific it is known from Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii and Papua New Guinea.
Elsewhere it is widely distributed.
4. Dialeuropora sp. on breadfruit. It is different from D. decempuncta which is known from
New Caledonia, Tonga, southeast Asia, India and Pakistan. It is not regarded as a pest.
5. Neomaskellia bergii on sugar cane. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific. It is
not a serious pest of sugar cane.
Survey of Bemisia tabaci and its natural enemies in the Pacific 20
Tuvalu (2 to 4 March 1997)
1. Neomaskellia bergii on sugar cane. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific. It is
not a serious pest.
Vanuatu (13/14 April 1997)
1. Neomaskellia bergii on sugar cane. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific. It is
not a serious pest of sugar cane.
2. Dialeuropora sp. on breadfruit. It is different from D. decempuncta which is known from
New Caledonia, Tonga, south-east Asia, India and Pakistan. It is not regarded as a pest.
P.J. De Barro
21
Western Samoa (21 to 22 February 1997)
1. Spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific.
2. Minutaleyrodes minuta on Ixora sp.. This species was previously known only from India,
but has now been found on this survey to be present in the Pacific in several countries. It
is not known to be a pest.
3. Aleurothrixus antidesmae, host unknown belonging to the Euphorbiaceae. This whitefly
was previously known only from Taiwan. It is not known to be a pest.
4. Dialeuropora sp. on breadfruit. It is different from D. decempuncta which is known from
New Caledonia, Tonga, south-east Asia, India and Pakistan. It is not regarded as a pest.
5. Neomaskellia bergii on sugar cane. It is widely distributed throughout the Pacific. It is
not a serious pest.
6. Orchamoplatus mammaeferus, on croton. It has been previously described from
American and Western Samoa, Fiji, Cook Islands, Tahiti and Marquesas Islands. It is not
regarded as a pest.
7. Paraleyrodes bondari on citrus. This is a new record for the Pacific. It has been
previously recorded only from Brazil. Now known to be in Rota Island (Northern Mariana
Islands), Tahiti and Western Samoa.
8. Dialeurodes citrifolii on citrus. This species has previously been known in the Pacific only
from Western Samoa and elsewhere from India, Japan, China, Vietnam, Caribbean,
Central America, Brazil, Venezuela and the southern USA. It is a pest of citrus.
9. Parabemisia myricae on Gardenia sp. and Rollinia sp.. This was previously known only
from Cyprus, Israel, Japan, Malaysia, south eastern USA, Taiwan and Turkey. It is a pest
of citrus.
Survey of Bemisia tabaci and its natural enemies in the Pacific 22
Appendix 3
The world wide distribution and known host ranges of parasitoids attacking B. tabaci
in the Pacific
A word of caution regarding biological control using Encarsia. This genus of Aphelinid
parasitoid contains a number of species that reproduce hyperparasitically. That is fertilised
females oviposit into whitefly that have already been parasitised by other species which can
belong to the same species, a different species of the same genus or a different genus. For
this reason they have the potential to have a detrimental interaction with other Aphelinid
parasitoids of whiteflies and as a consequence decisions to release should be made taking
into account the likely outcome of such interactions. The two most likely interactions are that
the introduced agent may not be able to compete with species already present or may
out-compete species present and create additional problems.
There is also a correlation between the occurrence of a new whitefly record for a country and
the discovery of its parasitoid. This suggests that the pathway for introduction involved plant
material containing parasitised whitefly.
Encarsia cibcensis
This species was released into Kiribati (Tarawa) in 1990 against B. tabaci. It was recovered
again in 1992. It was obtained from India and is also known from Pakistan. It is not known
from any other species of whitefly. It was found in Nauru and Cook Islands.
Encarsia formosa
This is another highly polyphagous, cosmopolitan species, widely distribute for biological
control. It has also been recorded from Aleuroglandulus malangae, Aleurotrachelus
trachoides, Aleyrodes lonicerae, A. proletella, A. spiraeoides, Dialeurodes chittendeni, D.
citri, Tetraleurodes mori, Trialeurodes vaporariorum and T. variablis. It was found in Fiji,
Nauru and Tonga.
Encarsia guadeloupe
This species is known from Guadeloupe attacking Aleyrodes sp. It has also been recorded
attacking Alerodicus dispersus. It is found in American Samoa, Cook Islands, Federated
States of Micronesia (Kosrae, Pohnpei, Truk, Yap), Fiji, Guam, Kiribati (Tarawa), Nauru,
Northern Mariana Islands (Rota, Saipan), Marshall Islands (Kwajalen, Ebeye Is), Palau,
Papua New Guinea (Lae, Port Moresby, Rabaul), Tonga, Vanuatu and Western Samoa.
Encarsia hispida
A polyphagous species recorded parasitising Aleuroglandulus malange, Aleurothrixus
porteri, and possibly Siphoninus phillyreae and T. vaporariorum. It is widely distributed in
Central and South America, the Caribbean and possibly Italy and Spain. It was found in
French Polynesia (Tahiti).
Encarsia lutea
This is a highly polyphagous, cosmopolitan species known from many different species of
whiteflies including several Acaudaleyrodes citri, Aleurolobus niloticus, Aleyrodes lonicerae,
A. proletella, Aleurolobus wunni, Asterobemisia carpini, A. atraphaxius, B. ovata, B.
salicaria, Bulgarialeurodes cotesii, Pealius setosus, Trialeurodes abutiloneus and T.
vaporariorum. It was found in Cook Islands, Nauru and Tonga.
Encarsia nigricephala
This is a New World species known from Florida, Mexico, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Venezuela
and Brazil. It has also been recorded from Trialeurodes abutiloneus, T. floridensis and T.
vaporariorum. It was found in Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia (Tahiti) and
Nauru.
P.J. De Barro
23
Encarsia protransvena
This species is known from the southern USA and Puerto Rico. It is polyphagous and has
been recorded from Aluerolobus subrotundus, Dialeurodes citri, D. citrifolii and D. kirkaldyi.
It was found in Fiji.
Encarsia sophia
I have not been able to find anything apart from the decsription. It was found in French
Polynesia (Tahiti).
Encarsia smithi
This species is under revision. It is from India, Mexico, Cuba and Asia and is known to
attack species of Aleurocanthus woglumi and A. spiniferus. It was found in the Federated
States of Micronesia.
Eretmocerus P2
This species is known from Australia and possibly south east Asia. It has been recorded
only from Bemisia tabaci. It was found in Nauru and Northern Mariana Islands.
Survey of Bemisia tabaci and its natural enemies in the Pacific 24
Budget discussion
Budgetted expenditure
Budgetted Spent
Personnel $25,867 $26,912.09
Supplies and Services $15,642 $26,662.65
Travel $40,963 $37,379.18
Capital Items $15,101 $9,204.08
Additional personnel $2,585
Total $100,158 $100,158
Variations on budget
Personnel An additional two weeks salary was requested to cover the salary of Mr Liebregts
as time lost through spontaneous flight reschedulings and cyclones meant a two week delay
in the completion of the project.
Supplies and services Considerably more was spent here than budgetted. The main
contributing factors were: the higher than expected costs ($800) for freight, an additional
$1500 for telephone, email and fax communications, $2,500 for materials used for
identification and a $6000 dollars contribution to vehicle running costs in Fiji. This was paid
for by savings made in the purchase of the microscope and in the cost of travel.
Capital items A Leica compound microscope was budgetted for however, the cheaper
Olympus proved to be an entirely suitable and cheaper alternative.
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