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Small Hive Beetle (SHB) Aethina tumida Murray (Coleoptera
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www.pir.sa.gov.au/factsheets
FS 03/06
Small Hive Beetle (SHB): Aethina tumida Murray (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae)
Michael Stedman, Senior Apiary Inspector
Origin and Distribution Description and Lifecycle
The Small Hive Beetle (SHB) was first recorded in Aethina tumida belongs to the family Nitidulidae. Most
sub-Saharan Africa as a nest scavenger of indigenous species in this family feed on decaying fruits,
honeybees distributed throughout tropical and sub- fermenting plant juices, fungi, carrion, flowers or
tropical Africa. The impact of SHB on these races was pollen.
negligible, with damage restricted to weak or stressed
colonies, with occasional damage to unprotected Australia already contains a number of native species
stored bee products. belonging to this family including:
Beetles of the genus Aethina. The adults have the
As a result, SHB was not considered a pest of same general body shape as SHB adults, but
European honeybees until 1998 when it was depending on species the adults range in length
discovered in Florida, USA. In the five years that from approximately 2 - 4 mm. None of these native
followed, SHB spread to 26 states and was considered Aethina species have been recovered from
to have caused significant losses. Whilst it is now clear honeybee colonies.
that European honeybees lack behavioural resistance Beetles of the genus Carpophilus. Larvae from this
mechanisms against SHB, it is evident that genus look similar to SHB larvae but are smaller
beekeeping practices, climatic conditions, and the and have more dorsal spines per segment. The
significant impact of varroa and tracheal mites also adults are elongated, and depending on species
contributed to the losses experienced by the United range in length from 3 - 4 mm. Several species of
States. Carpophilus are major pests of stored products
and fruit. Both adults and larvae of several species
Whilst not all US states can maintain SHB populations have been recovered from honeybee colonies.
because of their colder or arid climates, rapid spread Beetles of the genus Brachypeplus. The adults are
has occurred due to the extensive interstate elongated and up to 6.5 mm long with shortened
movement of infested colonies, package bees and elytra which is darker in colour than the exposed
hive equipment. abdomen. Several species of Brachypeplus are
In 2002 SHB was detected in Manitoba, Canada- known scavengers of native Trigona bee colonies.
though for unknown reasons it failed to establish. The lifecycle of SHB is divided into four stages – egg,
Also in 2002 SHB was detected in New South Wales larva, pupa and adult. Under moderate climatic
and Queensland. Since then, SHB has spread, conditions development takes 4 - 6 weeks, allowing for
predominantly via beekeeper movement of infested up to 6 generations per year. In warmer areas
colonies, resulting in its detection in Victoria in August development times are considerably less.
2005.
Eggs
It is expected that SHB will enter South Australia and
become endemic in regions with suitable climatic It is estimated that female SHB can lay between
conditions, soil types and feral honeybee densities. 1,000 – 2,000 eggs in their lifetime. In situations
Whilst these areas may be definable, marginal areas where honeybee brood or pollen is undefended,
of the State will be continually re-infested due to the female SHB lay clusters of approximately 10 - 30
movement of infested colonies. Further, localised plus eggs per cell by:
populations of SHB may survive in marginal areas due ovipositing on brood in open cells;
to the presence of feral colonies and poorly managed tearing a small hole in capped brood and laying
beekeeping operations, and possible alternative food a cluster of eggs on or alongside pre-pupa or
sources. pupa (Figure 1); or
puncturing the sides of empty cells and
ovipositing under the brood in adjoining cells.
For further information phone (08) 8226 0222, or any office of Primary Industries and Resources South Australia. ISSN 1323-0409
Information may be used with acknowledgement. July 2006
However, where brood and pollen frames are well substrate appear to be able to arrest development
defended, females will oviposit in cracks and for some time.
crevices within the hive. Wandering larvae are vulnerable to adverse
SHB eggs are similar in shape and colour to weather conditions and predation, particularly by
honeybee eggs but are only two-thirds the length ants and birds.
at 1.4 mm long x 0.26 mm wide. Eggs are pearly
white and tend to be laid in irregular masses Pupae
(Figure 1).
Egg hatch usually takes between 2 - 4 days in the Prior to pupation, larvae burrow 10 - 20 cm and
hive, but may take up to 6 days under cooler construct a pupal chamber. Soil moisture level
conditions such as when frames are stored during appears critical to successful pupation and
winter. emergence, with moist loose soils (between 5 -
Eggs are vulnerable to desiccation, although 25% moisture by weight) being the most suitable
desiccation is unlikely to occur in viable hives. substrate. Although dry compacted soils, wet soils
(at holding capacity) and certain soil types (eg
Figure 1 SHB Egg Mass on Honeybee Pupa compacted) result in significant pupal mortality;
pupation has been observed being initiated under
gravel above a compacted driveway base in humid
conditions, under dense leaf litter above red sand
in hot dry conditions, and under in-hive debris
within a dead sealed hive.
Pupae are pearly white, progressing to a light
brown colour prior to emergence as adults.
Pupation time varies greatly depending on soil
temperatures. Pupation over the summer usually
takes between 15 - 60 days with most of the adults
emerging after between 21 - 28 days. However,
during cold periods (ie. less than 10 C) pupation
may take up to 100 days.
Pupae are vulnerable to adverse weather
conditions, soil borne fungal infection, nematodes
and soil cultivation.
Larvae Pupae can be controlled using registered chemical
soil drenches.
Larvae are the most damaging stage, as once
hatched they immediately begin feeding on Adults
whatever food source is available including bee
brood (preferred source), pollen or honey. Adult SHB darken after emergence to a brown-
Larval development is over five instars and takes black colour dorsally (top) and reddish brown-
10 - 14 days to complete, though this may extend black ventrally (underside). Adults are broad,
to 30 days depending on the quality and quantity flattened and oval in shape, approximately 5 - 7
of food resources and temperature. mm long x 2.5 - 3.5 mm wide (3/16" - 5/16" x
Mature larvae vary in size (depending on food approximately 1/8"). The antennae are clubbed,
sources) but average around 11.1 mm long x 1.6 and the elytra are shortened, exposing the last 2
mm wide (7/16" x 1/16"). Larvae are cigar-shaped abdominal segments, one segment of which is
and pale yellow-cream in colour with a tan-brown clearly visible (Figures 3 and 4).
head capsule. Adults can successfully reproduce on diets of
The most distinctive diagnostic feature is the brood, pollen and pollen/honey mixtures, as well
presence of a pair of raised dorsal spines on each as some fruits, although the highest reproductive
larval segment, with the anterior and posterior success appears to be in adults fed pollen.
pairs of spines being most pronounced (Figure 2). In laboratory experiments, adult SHB were found
Once larval feeding is complete, mature larvae to be able to live up to 167 days on honey, 123
enter a wandering phase, which may be triggered days on pollen and over 49 days on empty brood
by increasing humidity. These larvae are attracted comb, whereas if they only have access to water
to light, migrating predominantly at dusk from they can only live for approximately 9 days.
colonies in search of a suitable pupation substrate. Anecdotal evidence suggests that younger adults
The majority of larval burrowing occurs within 90 are attracted to light, readily take to the wing
cm of the colony entrance. However larvae can around dusk and move between colonies. Older,
wander over 200 metres in search of favourable and presumably mated, adults are less likely to
conditions such as a suitable substrate or moister move between colonies, and are repelled by light.
areas around plant irrigation zones or under Adults are able to fly up to 15 km to locate
mulch/leaf litter. colonies, and in colder areas, SHB adults appear
Wandering larvae awaiting environmental triggers to migrate to stronger hives in autumn, and back
to pupate or unable to burrow into a suitable to weaker hives in spring.
2
Little is known regarding adult SHB behaviour in or behind propolis ‘walls’ on the bottom board or
the environment. Research has shown that on frames at the periphery of the brood nest. In
emerging beetles are gregarious, mate within a colonies where adult SHB are not harassed or
week of emerging, and appear to be attracted to confined, adult beetles can be found almost
hives that are shaded or stressed. anywhere in the hive although their preference is
Dependent to some extent on the colony’s within the brood nest.
behavioural response (eg aggression and Adult SHB are able to protect themselves from
confinement traits towards intruders) adult SHB bee attack due to their hard exoskeleton and their
move fairly freely throughout a colony. In colonies ability to retract their head and legs under their
where honeybees actively confine adult SHB, body.
most adults were found imprisoned in empty cells
Figure 2 Morphological Characteristics of SHB Larvae
Figure 3 Outline and Size Comparisons of SHB Adults
Adult 1/3 size of honeybee
Adult 3 are appears whilst Otto Boecking, Institut für Bienenkunde, Celle
Figures 2 and as it based on those of Dr hiding
3
Figure 4 Morphological Characteristics of SHB Adults
Figure 4 is based on that of Dr Otto Boecking, Institut für Bienenkunde, Celle
4
Similar Looking Insects Figure 5 Mature Wax Moth Larvae – Ventral and
Several insect species found in hives look similar to Lateral Views Showing Prolegs
either the larval or adult stages of SHB. To assist with
identification, a comparison is provided.
Wax moth
Wax moth and SHB larvae can be differentiated based
on a number of morphological and behavioural
characteristics (Table 1).
Table 1 SHB and wax moth larvae differentiation
SHB larvae Wax moth larvae
Pairs of prominent No spines, but numbers
brownish dorsal spines of setae (hairs) on
present on each segment, segments.
including larger anterior &
posterior pairs.
3 pairs of anterior prolegs 8 pairs of prolegs – three
only, posterior end in pairs of anterior prolegs,
contact with the substrate four pairs of abdominal
(Figure 2). prolegs and one pair of
anal prolegs on the last
segment (Figure 5).
(1 square = 1mm)
Walks with a motion Walks with typical
dissimilar to caterpillars. caterpillar-like concertina Carpophilus species
motion.
Less than 12 mm long. Up to 25 mm long Carpophilus spp larvae and adults can be
depending on age, food differentiated from SHB larvae and adults based on a
source and species. number of morphological characteristics (Table 2).
Found throughout the In active hives, usually
Table 2 SHB and Carpophilus spp differentiation
hive in aggregations - only on the outer margins
often regardless of hive of the brood nest in SHB larvae Carpophilus spp larvae
strength. stores. In dead or weak Pairs of prominent Depending on species,
hives, the larvae can be brownish dorsal spines more than 2 small spines
found, often in present on each are present on each
aggregations, throughout segment, including. segment, with relatively
the hive. larger anterior & larger posterior spines
posterior pairs. (Figure 6).
Will tunnel through cells. Will tunnel through cells. Less than 12 mm long. Less than 8 mm long.
Will infest frames of fresh Cannot tunnel through Found throughout live Generally only found in
honey, where they will frames of fresh honey. and dead hives. debris on the floorboard
leave ‘slime’ trails. or pollen stores of dead
hives.
Typically attempts to Typically attempts to SHB adults Carpophilus spp adults
rapidly burrow away from rapidly burrow away from Found throughout live Generally only found in
light. light. and dead hives. debris on the floorboard
Free moving and never Almost always within or pollen stores of dead
produces silken galleries silken galleries. Often if hives.
as larvae. dislodged, larvae will
hang from a silken thread. Move quickly from light Move quickly from light
at approx 1cm/second, but not as fast as SHB.
Frass if present, typically Frass present as and will drop from top
consists of long thin individual dark pellets, bars.
threads. typically within the Are brown-black dorsally Are dark brown, (some
galleries. and reddish brown-black spp. with lighter
Mature larvae in the Mature larvae pupate ventrally with a broad colouration on the elytra)
wandering phase are within the hive in white flattened oval body & have a broad flattened
attracted to light and will cocoons. approximately 5 - 7 mm oval body approximately
exit the hive to pupate in long x 2.5 - 3.5 mm wide 3.5 mm long x 1.5 mm
soil. (Figure 4). wide (Figure 6).
5
Figure 6 Carpophilus spp – Eggs, Larva, Pupa and Figure 7 Dermestid spp – Various Larvae and
Adults Adults
(Not to scale - Pin tip shows scale/ 1 square = 1mm)
Dermestid species
Dermestid spp larvae and adults can be differentiated
from SHB larvae and adults based on a number of
morphological characteristics (Table 3).
Table 3 SHB and Dermestid spp differentiation
SHB larvae Dermestid spp larvae
Pairs of prominent Covered in long hairs,
brownish dorsal spines with body and hair
present on each segment, colouration tending to
including larger anterior & dark brown-black (Figure
posterior pairs. 7).
Found throughout live and Generally only found in
dead hives. debris in dead hives. (Not to scale - 1 square = 1mm)
SHB adults Dermestid spp adults
Found throughout live and Generally only found in
dead hives. debris in dead hives.
Are brown-black dorsally Are dark brown-black
and reddish brown-black with a broad flattened
ventrally with a broad oval body ranging in size
flattened oval body (Figure 7).
approximately 5 - 7 mm
long x 2.5 - 3.5 mm wide.
6
Other similar looking species Honey spoilage causes honey darkening,
fermentation, and the production of a frothy mass
Figure 8 Adult Beetles and Cockroach that has an odour similar to decaying oranges.
Nymphs Damaged honeycombs which leak honey. This
can result in drowned bees and lead to honey loss
and hive meltdown, along with robbing and the
potential for the spread of American Foulbrood
disease.
A reduction in foraging activity, and a disruption in
brood rearing, possibly as a result of brood
mortality and colony disorganization as the colony
attempts to defend itself.
Colonies absconding or dying out.
SHB Detection in Hives
It is extremely difficult to detect low numbers of SHB in
hives. Further, adults may exit infested hives during
the day, returning at dusk to different hives including
recently opened hives. For these reasons, baiting and
trapping are useful tools to assist in visually detecting
the initial presence of SHB adults and larvae.
SHB Adults
Adults may be located on the outer pollen/brood
frames in an active hive, in hive corners, on the
floorboard under debris, under the hive mat or in
supplementary feed. However, in a hive during cold
weather the SHB adults are more likely to be located
within the bee cluster. Due to their aversion to light,
adults will rapidly seek cover when hive material is
opened for inspection, often dropping off top bars
(Not to scale - 1 square = 1mm) down into the hive.
Damage SHB Larvae
Larvae may be found in combs containing brood,
The impact SHB will have on beekeeping in Australia
pollen, or honey and in supplementary feed.
is unknown, but will vary depending on climate and
Wandering larvae can be found throughout the hive, or
soil conditions, available alternate hosts, beekeeper
exiting the hive, typically during early evening.
management practices and possible re-infestation in
marginal areas. It can be assumed that SHB will have
Inspection
an adverse impact on honeybees, so beekeeping
practices will need to change. The following method is suitable for the detection of
adults, larvae and damage in either hives or stacks of
As mentioned, European honeybees are highly
frames (the example given is for hives). Note that care
susceptible to SHB depredation due in part to their
should always be taken when inspecting hives to
lack of defensive traits (including confinement and
minimise colony disruption, as evidence suggests that
aggression towards adults) and effective detection and
adults take advantage of colony disruption to oviposit
removal of SHB eggs.
in undefended brood and pollen cells. If inspecting an
apiary for SHB, start with the weakest/queenless hive.
Heavy infestations of larvae and adult SHB feeding
on brood and pollen will severely weaken a colony.
1. Carefully remove the lid, and check for running
SHB adults in the lid and on the mat top. Invert
High numbers of SHB adults and/or larvae may also
the lid.
result in:
2. If a mat is present, remove and quickly check for
Increased susceptibility to stress related diseases adults running under the mat. Place mat inside
including European Foulbrood and Chalkbrood. the inverted lid.
3. Place the top super onto inverted lid.
Comb damage, and in particular honey spoilage. It
4. Remove the wall frames from this super, and
is believed that honey spoilage is caused by
without shaking the bees, check for SHB adults
increased moisture levels (due to larval tunnelling
running amongst the bees, and adults, larvae
damage to the cells and the cappings) and faecal
and their damage in the cells that are visible.
contamination from feeding larvae and adults.
7
5. Where robbing isn’t likely, leave the top super containing pupae may contribute to the spread of
uncovered on the upturned lid for several SHB.
minutes to allow light to repel the adults down the
frames to hide in the inverted lid. Fruit
6. Lift the top super off the lid and re-check for
running adults in the lid and under the mat. Recent laboratory experiments have demonstrated
Remove all supers. that adult SHB prefer and actively seek out
7. If the hive has a loose bottom, remove the brood honeybee colonies. They have also shown that SHB
box, place on the supers and check the bottom can feed and complete all life-cycle stages on fruit,
(and under the grate if present) for running although longevity and fecundity are markedly
adults, particularly in the rear corners. reduced. Fruit feeding has not yet been observed in
8. Remove all the frames and without shaking the the field, and it is unknown whether feeding would
bees, check for SHB adults, larvae and their occur on intact marketable fruits or be restricted to
damage on the frames and in visible cells, using damaged fermenting fruit.
smoke to flush out SHB adults and larvae. Check
the base for running adults - particularly in the Control
rear corners.
9. Close up the hive, and start on the next weak SHB adults are preferentially attracted to active hives.
hive, repeating the above steps. However SHB adult attraction and subsequent
damage readily occurs to stored frames and bee
As part of your apiary biosecurity, remember to products. Slum wax, pollen, supplementary protein
wash your hands and hive tool between hives and and bee brood are most attractive, whilst white sticky
ensure that no apiary products are exposed. frames without residual brood/pollen and extracted
and stored honey are least attractive.
Several monitoring techniques that can be used to
improve the sensitivity of visual inspections include: There are a number of potential control techniques
that could be used to minimise the impact of SHB.
using irradiated powdered pollen or pollen patties Long-term control however will only be successful if
placed above the mat to attract SHB adults. The combinations of techniques are implemented, both
pollen needs to be checked daily for the presence within the apiary and during equipment/comb storage.
of SHB adults and larvae.
using large squares of corrugated cardboard It is expected that exclusion and hygiene will have the
(either with or without paper backing) or corflute, biggest impact on SHB control for the least cost.
placed to the back of the bottom board. The
squares are removed 1 - 2 days later, and either Current control techniques include:
for corrugated cardboard without paper backing/
exclusion;
corflute, inspected in situ for hiding adults, or for
corrugated cardboard with paper backing, placed hygiene;
in a plastic bag and frozen, then destructively baiting and trapping;
inspected for hiding adults. natural agents;
honeybee genetics;
Experiments have shown that another successful environmental manipulation;
monitoring technique is the use of an amber light chemicals;
shone onto frames at night, causing SHB adults to hive management; and
become active and detectable. honey frame management.
Dispersal All of the described control techniques involving
the potential exposure of hive
SHB adults, larvae and eggs are easily spread via the components/products require protection from SHB
movement of infested beehives, colonies, frames (full and environmental contamination.
or empty), bee equipment, queen cages, wax
cappings and bee-collected pollen. Persons using chemicals have legal obligations,
and applications must be as per label/permit
Individually hand caught queen bees and escorts are requirements and where necessary with the
not considered a high-risk means of spread, though in permission of the landholder.
heavy infestations (as observed in Florida), SHB eggs
have been observed attached to worker bees. Care must be exercised when using control
strategies that include/combine electricity, hot
Adult beetles actively move between colonies, and lights, liquids and flammable oils.
have been observed flying up to 15 km in search of
host colonies. Exclusion
As SHB larvae pupate in the soil, movement of either In-hive exclusion of SHB adults is not yet possible.
wandering larvae on pallets and equipment, or soil However actions that may assist include:
8
maintaining strong queen-right hives with genetic Baits incorporate food sources (with or without
strains that exhibit aggression towards SHB adults pesticides) and/or aggregation/attractant pheromones.
and larvae. Both bait and traps can be located either in the apiary
minimizing the number of undefended entry points. or within individual hives. Traps may be passive (such
Potential entry points include air vents, mesh as corrugated cardboard/corflute where hiding insects
screened bases (SHB adults can move through a are collected and killed by freezing, drowning, fire, etc)
mesh size of 3 mm) and unsound material. It is or active (such as modified containers of oil, sticky
important to remember that bee-proof material boards etc (with or without lights) which trap and kill
is not necessarily SHB-proof. insects in situ).
reducing the numbers of adult and larval refuge
sites. Sites include in-hive cracks/debris/burr- In-hive baiting and trapping can provide effective
comb, plastic frame moulding cavities, floor grates, control of adults and larvae under commercial
pollen traps and supers, particularly cleared conditions. Currently a range of components and
supers and surplus supers left on-hive over winter. designs are being trialed. The results on the
effectiveness of these designs are available from
Apiary-wide exclusion includes SHB proofing surplus RIRDC (May 2005).
material stored on-site including nucleus hives, It has also been noted that hives with reduced
stickies, and catch boxes. entrances and ventilated bases of beetle proof mesh
often have aggregations of beetles on the external
In-storage exclusion involves ensuring storage areas mesh surface. Potential may therefore also exist to
and containers are insect proofed to exclude SHB, develop an external under-hive trap which exploits this
particularly those areas protecting honey supers, phenomenon, particularly as mesh bases are also
stickies and cull frames. If relying solely on exclusion, effective overseas as a varroa mite control measure.
pre-storage control of honey supers, stickies, surplus
frames, failed hives, slum wax, pollen, etc will be Apiary-wide baiting and trapping of adults using bait
necessary to kill any adults and larvae present, combinations of wax, pollen, honey, brood, fruit etc,
otherwise in-storage damage will still occur. are likely to have minimal impact, as adult beetles are
preferentially attracted to active colonies. Potential
In some storage facilities (eg shipping containers) however may exist to identify highly attractive SHB
post-treatment long-term exclusion without internal specific aggregation/attractant pheromones
trapping has failed. SHB adults attracted to internal
odours were observed laying eggs around the In-storage baiting and trapping of adults and larvae
container door seals, and on hatching, larvae crawled provides some control.
between the seals and re-infested the stored material.
In addition to the in-hive baits and traps already
Hygiene mentioned, SHB adults and larvae are attracted to
lights including fluorescent lights (cool white or black
Apiary-wide hygiene includes the removal and SHB light) and halogen lights. Lights can be mounted at
proofing of exposed/surplus material/products. Where ground level above large shallow containers (either
on-site extraction occurs in sealed vans, the only with built up sides or buried in the ground) containing
major hygiene concerns are associated with prolonged vegetable oil or detergent. Wandering larvae from
in-van storage of slum wax, cull frames etc, and the stored material are attracted to the lights and drown
storage of surplus material on hives that are unable to after crawling into the containers.
defend the additional frames.
Natural Agents
In-storage hygiene is particularly important in central
extraction premises and is partially dependant on the Control of larvae and pupae via natural agents is most
degree of premise exclusion. SHB can become a likely to occur in the apiary. Mature wandering larvae
major problem in extraction areas where hygiene searching for pupation sites are often subject to
practices are minimal, as significant population predation from a number of bird and ant species,
increase can occur. To reduce the attractiveness and whilst pupae may be subject to control by natural soil
access to alternative food sources, extraction plants borne nematodes and fungi in moister soils.
should be cleaned daily by draining extractors and
honey sumps and skimming the top of the settling tank Research is underway on isolating potential fungi that
where these items cannot be sealed. Floors and could be applied in combination with a desiccant as a
surfaces should also be kept free of dead bees and biological soil drench to control SHB larvae.
debris.
Additional natural control may be achieved during
Baiting and Trapping adverse weather conditions due to desiccation,
inundation or freezing.
Baiting and/or trapping of both adults and larvae can
be used for monitoring and/or control. However Honeybee Genetics
capture efficiency is highly dependent on the
attractiveness, effectiveness and density of baits Identified honeybee behavioral traits which may assist
and/or traps, and availability of alternate food sources. in SHB control include imprisoning adult SHB,
9
aggression toward free roaming adult beetles, removal the dehumidified air. However, this method is not
of SHB larvae from colonies, and the detection and proven, and the RH must be below 50% otherwise
removal of SHB eggs in capped bee brood. Each of elevating the temperature will only result in increased
these traits is present in European races to some larval activity and damage.
degree and may be selectable for enhancement.
Chilling will kill all SHB stages. In-storage chilling relies
Experiments have shown that colonies exhibiting on dropping the temperature to below a lower thermal
dominant hygienic behaviors, which include the threshold and maintaining this target temperature long
detection and removal of SHB egg clusters in brood enough to cause death. To date, the precise threshold
cells and the confinement of SHB adults, show greater values for each developmental stage are unknown,
success in preventing SHB population increases. however experiments suggest that SHB adults, eggs
There may therefore be scope for the development of and larvae are killed at temperature/time combinations
genetic lines able to limit the impact of SHB, with the of:
added likely advantage of conferring resistance to minus 9ºC for ½ hour;
parasitic mites in the future. minus 1ºC for 1 hour; or
between 1 - 4ºC for 8 days.
Environmental Manipulation once all the material is at the target temperature.
Control of SHB adults, eggs and larvae can be The time taken to reach a target temperature is
achieved via environmental and/or behavioral dependant on factors including heat load and
manipulation, using light, dehumidification and chilling. refrigeration efficiency. Thus for example it can take
Apiary-wide environmental manipulation can 12-18 hours for a full 20-foot refrigerated shipping
include placing apiaries on areas of rubble/hard dry container loaded with supers at 30ºC, to drop to minus
soil or on wide plastic sheeting. The effectiveness of 9ºC. It is therefore important prior to using chilling as
these practices in hot dry areas is however reduced if an option that core temperature readings are taken
larvae can access moister areas such as plant under various loading capacities to establish both the
irrigation zones and mulch/leaf litter, or the underside minimum temperatures achievable by the unit and the
of the sheeting/hive bases. time taken for all material to reach the target
Additional manipulation could include, with the temperature.
permission of the landowner, deep cultivation of the Consideration must also be given to re-warming frozen
site after hive removal to kill pupae. material, and many commercial refrigerated shipping
In-storage environmental manipulation includes containers/truck trailer units are able to maintain
exposure to light and dehumidification. Adult SHB are temperatures selected between -20ºC and 20ºC.
negatively phototaxic (ie light averse), wandering Clustered bees must also be cleared from honey
larvae are positively phototaxic, and both larvae and supers prior to chilling otherwise localised SHB larval
eggs in particular are susceptible to desiccation. damage could still occur within these bee clusters.
Control of adults, larvae and eggs is possible when Chemicals
using open stacking (ie. supers stacked on
raised/ventilated bases and without lids), by: Chemical control of all SHB stages is possible but is
largely dependant on the chemical and the method of
maintaining a positive flow of air around and application. Whilst incidental control may be achieved
through stacks to reduce the relative humidity during control of other pests, to date (July 2006) only
(RH) – this may require honey pallet modification one chemical is registered for SHB control.
to ensure basal airflow. Experiments suggest that
Apiary-wide chemical control through the use of
at 30ºC and at:
insecticide soil drenches can potentially provide
34% RH, egg hatch was zero;
effective control of burrowing larvae and pupae.
44% RH, egg hatch was < 10%; Currently, a range of chemicals are being trialed -
57% RH, egg hatch was 50%; and contact PIRSA for further details.
90% RH, egg hatch was > 90%.
Drenching is dependant on the correct timing of
It is presumed that the relative humidity would be application(s), and effective coverage across both the
required to be sustained for at least 2 – 3 days. area (up to 180 cm from the entrance in all directions)
and depth (down to 10+ cm).
illuminating stacks so that adults (and larvae) have
fewer in-super hiding areas. This may only be It is strongly recommended that should drenching be
feasible where all frames are capped and undertaken, drench prior to hive placement or after
alternative refuge sites are provided, such as hive removal, or drench at night once bees are in the
under stack bait traps and/or vegetable hives.
oil/detergent traps.
The above options could be combined with open
stacking under heat lamps, with fans used to circulate
10
In-storage chemical application or fumigation could placement of infested stickies on hives. All
potentially provide effective control of adults, eggs and frames that have been potentially exposed to SHB
larvae. Whilst chemicals may in future be registered during storage should be treated prior to
for the control of SHB in stickies, chemical control in placement on hives.
honey frames may not be possible. pollen traps where trapped pollen is left in the
trap drawers for too long.
Hive Management
Anecdotal evidence from the US suggests that hives
Successful management of SHB in the apiary relies on should be kept free of burr comb and debris, and that
maximizing hive strength, minimizing the area of hives already weakened by disease or mites are very
undefended frames per hive, and minimizing hive attractive to SHB adults.
disorganization. SHB infestations in the apiary can
occur via: It should also be noted that in both the US and
Australia, observations have been made suggesting
dead hives and catch boxes where infestations that SHB adults will feed on the candy used in queen
are allowed to establish and become a source of cages. Some instances of queens being trapped in the
SHB in the apiary. In addition, if infested frames resulting mess have occurred. Damage may be
are transferred to other hives they too become reduced in these instances by making a hole through
infested and weakened. Swarms that establish in the candy/removing some of the candy to speed up
infested catch boxes will also be weakened. emergence. Where there are high densities of SHB
weak/disorganized hives due to swarming, adults, the use of push-in screened cages or protected
queen failure, disease, starvation, ants, splitting, queen cells may not be appropriate.
etc. These hives are less able to attack SHB
adults or replace brood and stores lost to SHB Honey Frame Management
predation. There is also evidence that hives
without a viable queen (eg no queen, failing queen Insufficient control of SHB in stored frames will provide
or queen cells) are very attractive to SHB and are opportunities for SHB populations to explode.
quickly overrun.
Once SHB is established it can be assumed that at
expanding hives, such as transferring nucleus
least some frames per apiary will eventually contain
hives to singles. Where bee numbers are
SHB, thus facilitating SHB entry into an extraction
insufficient to cover all frames, SHB adults are
premise even if the premise is SHB proof. As a result,
able to lay large numbers of eggs on undefended
damage and contamination of honey will occur;
frames.
dependant on initial SHB numbers, pre-extraction
brood manipulations where SHB adults and/or
treatment and time in storage. It is therefore important
larvae are transferred between hives infested and
that all frames are extracted within 2 - 3 days of
hives not yet infested.
placing above clearer boards if used, or within 1 - 2
hive manipulations that leave bees disorganized, days of hive removal. If extraction is not possible
such as using fume or clearer boards, splitting within this time frame, all frames should be subject to
hives, leaving hives open for too long during some form of SHB control.
mobile extraction, etc. Host seeking SHB adults
appear to be able to detect such hives, and in To effectively manage SHB and prevent contamination
combination with adults already in the hives will (or recontamination) of stored material, it is
lay large numbers of eggs on undefended frames. recommended that a process is established to track
supplementary protein feed where feed placed and record treatment(s) used.
outside the brood nest is unprotected or cannot be
consumed within 2 - 3 days. Protein foods Cull frames and slum wax should also be processed
stimulate SHB oviposition and enhance larval within 2 - 3 days to minimize SHB population buildup.
growth. Wrapping protein patties in aluminium foil
so that only the ends are exposed helps restrict The management options for honey frames damaged
SHB access. or infested with SHB are limited, even if the SHB
supplementary sugar feeding using feeders that present are killed, as bees are repelled by both the
drown large numbers of bees and/or contain fermented honey and the slime produced by SHB
volumes that cannot be consumed within 2-3 days larvae.
results in fermented syrup that provides a
Management options include:
stimulating food source for both SHB adults and
larvae. honey frames that contain areas of fermented
undefended frames, such as occurs where or frothy honey, or frames with damaged
supers are left above clearer boards for too long or cappings or exposed honey covered with
where spare supers are left on over-wintering slime. These frames must not be extracted for
hives, particularly where supers/lids contain holes human consumption. Affected frames and honey
that allow access to SHB from outside the hive. should be clearly labelled and set aside. Affected
Reducing the number of undefended frames is honey may be extracted separately and buried, or
important in minimising potential SHB damage. damaged frames and affected honey may be burnt
and buried, with the minimum burial depth being
11
one metre. The extraction plant and honey
containers must be sanitized prior to re-use, whilst
salvaged frames must be rinsed in warm potable
water and the residue must be collected and
buried.
Figure 9 shows several frames of infested honey,
all of which contain unmarketable honey.
It is important to note that SHB infested honey
is unmarketable.
Bees may be able to handle and re-store small
areas of SHB damaged honey, however damaged
frames should be subject to some form of SHB
control first, and frames should be placed on hives
according to the existing barrier system.
Recent experience suggests several household
products may assist in salvaging combs. However
before these types of products are used, you must
to consult your packer as residues may be an
issue.
honey frames that are covered with small
areas of SHB larval slime without capping
damage or fermented honey. These frames
must be wiped free of slime immediately prior to
extraction using a moist clean lint free cloth. The
cloth should be rinsed in warm potable running
water between each frame or super depending on
the degree of contamination.
Photos: Denis Anderson
Should contamination occur it is important to
discuss salvage, identification and delivery
options with your packer.
Figure 9 SHB Damage to Honey Frames
Figure 10 The Result of a SHB Hive Infestation
Photo: Denis Anderson
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Submitting Samples Goodman, R. & Kaczynski, P. 2005, Small Hive
Beetle – A Beekeeping Pest, Agriculture Note 1080,
Confirmation of the presence of SHB can be made by Victorian Department of Primary Industries.
submitting dead specimens to PIRSA. http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/DPI/ and search for Small
Hive Beetle – A Beekeeping Pest.
Collect samples of adults and/or larvae, and kill them
by either freezing or immersing in methylated spirits Department of Primary Industries. 2005, Guidelines
for 24 hours (remember to remove the beetles/larvae for the Management and Control of Small Hive Beetle
from the methylated spirits before posting). Place the (Aethina tumida), DPI&F Note, Queensland
adults/larvae in padding, such as cotton wool, inside Department of Primary Industries.
a sealed container and post or deliver to: http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/health/12323.html
Apiary Unit Hood, W.M. 2004, The Small Hive Beetle, Aethina
Primary Industries & Resources South Australia tumida: A Review, Bee World, vol. 85, no. 3, pp 51-
33 Flemington Street 59. http://www.ibra.org.uk
GLENSIDE SA 5065 Levot, G., Hornitzky, M. & White, B. 2005, Update on
Research to Control Small Hive Beetles – May 2005,
Information Short Report No. 139, Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation, Barton.
Further information on SHB is available by contacting http://www.rirdc.gov.au/pub/shortreps/SR139.pdf
the PIRSA Apiary Unit on:
Lundie, A.E. 1940, The Small Hive Beetle, Aethina
Michael Stedman (08) 8207 7975 tumida, Entomological Series 3 – Science Bulletin
Senior Apiary Inspector 0408 812 698 No. 220, Department of Agriculture and Forestry,
Elena Petrenas (08) 8207 7976 Pretoria.
Project Manager, Apiculture 0438 822 795
Central Science Laboratory. 2003, The Small Hive
References Beetle – A Serious New Threat to European
Apiculture, – March 2003, Central Science
A number of publications were referenced in the Laboratory, National Bee Unit, York.
production of this bulletin, including: http://www.csl.gov.uk/science/organ/environ/bee/fact
Ellis, J.D. 2003, The Ecology and Control of Small sheets/SHB.pdf
Hive Beetle (Aethina tumida Murray), PhD Thesis, Somerville, D. 2003, Study of the Small Hive Beetle
Rhodes University, Grahamstown. in the USA, Pub. No. 03/050, Rural Industries
Fletcher, M.J. & Cook, L.G. 2005, Small Hive Beetle, Research and Development Corporation, Barton.
Agdex 481/20, New South Wales Department of http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/HBE/03-050.pdf
Primary Industries. http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/query Warhurst, P. & Goebel, R. 2005, The Bee Book –
and search for Small Hive Beetle. Beekeeping in Australia, 2nd edn, Department of
Primary Industries & Fisheries Publications, Brisbane
Disclaimer:
Use of the information/advice in the Technical Bulletin is at your own risk. Primary Industries & Resources South Australia, the South Australian
Research and Development Institute and their employees do not warrant or make any representation regarding the use or results of the use of
the information contained herein as regards to its correctness, accuracy, reliability, currency or otherwise. The entire risk as to the results from
the implementation of the information/advice which has been given to you is assumed by you. All liability or responsibility to any person using
the information/advice is expressly disclaimed by PIRSA, SARDI and their employees.
13
Notes
14
Notes
15
