Victoria University School of Applied Economics Faculty of Business and Law
Ph.D. Thesis
TRAVEL GUIDEBOOKS AND THE INDEPENDENT TRAVELLER IN THE ASIA PACIFIC REGION
Linda Osti
Supervisor Prof. Lindsay Turner
Co-supervisor Prof. Brian King
2007
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of this work would not have been possible without the help and support of a number of influential people around me. First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Lindsay Turner for his enduring help and constant suggestions through each step of the research. From the initial conceptualisation to the final writing of the thesis, Lindsay has provided me with precious guidance. This guidance has helped me both with the PhD, my academic career and also throughout my life during these years of research work. I will always appreciate the time he dedicated to me for talks and discussions. I will miss those chats which usually started with the PhD and research work and extended into life in general. My gratitude also goes to Wendy, who always welcomed me so warmly into her home. I also would like to thank my co-supervisor Professor Brian King for his useful comments and assistance during the final stages of the PhD. Extra special thanks goes to Ludovico for his continued support. Over the last two and a half years he has stood by my side, encouraging me to have faith in myself and to never give up. He is the person who best showed me that goals – as impossible as they may appear – can be achieved through determination and hard work. Thanks also to Luca for his support in pursuing the road of the PhD. Our friendship has encouraged me to look ahead. Writing a thesis in a foreign language is never easy. Special thanks to Linda and Ashley for their support and for the precious weekend time they dedicated to proofread my thesis. Thanks also to Eugenie for her help and warm, open hospitality during my time collecting data in Sydney. Eugenie has seen and supported me through the daily struggle of
interviewing tourists on the street.
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Finally I would like to thank my family for their moral support in undertaking a new challenge 10,000 miles away from home. They are the ones who never complained about the few and sporadic visits back home, and the short phone calls. This research would never have been possible without the cooperation of over one thousand travellers who dedicated their time for the completion of the questionnaire. Some travellers stopped for a friendly chat, some just smiled and returned the completed questionnaire to me, some asked to take a picture, while others moved on to another destination. To all 1,096 travellers, I greatly appreciate your time, chats, and smiles; you have made this piece of research interesting and well worth undertaking.
[……] when at the sight of the typewriter I am taken by an overwhelming nausea, symptoms that normally appear at the end of the academic year, I become a dog amongst dogs, or better an animal amongst animals. (Konrad Lorenz, 1967, p. 267)
Thanks to all of you at the Friends of the Pound. When I am with you, life, and PhD worries, take a different perspective.
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ABSTRACT
The constant increase in the number of independent travellers has prompted the need for accurate and reliable information to plan holidays and to evaluate on-site activities. In organising and undertaking independent tours, travellers face the challenge of searching useful information about the destinations they are visiting. Specifically, potential tourists have a need for information with the purpose of reducing risks associated with the consumption of tourism services. It is clear that information acquisition is necessary both for selecting a destination and for on-site decisions. However, values, beliefs and attitudes influence the levels and types of information needed, and therefore may impact on the levels and types of information sought. The purpose of this research is to investigate the need for information by independent travellers. This research has examined on-site information needs and search with a specific focus on travel guidebooks. A cross cultural approach has been taken and travellers from Japan, Korea, China, and North America have been surveyed. This research is quantitative in nature and the data have been analysed through the use of factor analysis and structural equation modelling.
This research has demonstrated that travel guidebooks are an aid in reducing risks associated with travelling independently, and they play a positive role in the recent tourism trend of a shift away from mass tourism towards independent tourism. This research has also demonstrated that cultural background is a determinant in the types of information searched and in the use of travel guidebooks while travelling. This research has provided a contribution to current theories of consumer behaviour, with specific focus on independent tourism and information needs. This study also enables unbiased discussion on the possible directions for travel guidebook publishers to be successful in the Asian market.
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DECLARATION
I, Linda Osti, declare that the PhD thesis entitled Travel Guidebooks and the Independent Traveller in the Asia Pacific Region is no more than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work.
Signature……………………………………….
Date……………………….
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................... III LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... VI LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... VIII
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1. Research background ................................................................................. 1 1.1.1. Definition of the words ........................................................................... 2 1.1.2. Why independent tourism ...................................................................... 2 1.2. Purpose of the research .............................................................................. 5 1.3. Market profile for Asian tourism .................................................................... 9 1.4. Thesis structure ........................................................................................ 10
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................. 11 2.1. The move from package to independent travel ............................................. 11 2.1.1. The importance of independent tourism ................................................ 14 2.2. Information search and consumer behaviour theories in tourism .................... 18 2.2.1. Types and definitions of information sources ......................................... 22 2.2.2. The process of information acquisition .................................................. 26 2.2.3. Determinants in an information search .................................................. 31 2.2.4. Processing information ........................................................................ 35 2.2.5. Product involvement in the information search and processing................ 39 2.2.6. Risk perception in the information search and processing ....................... 40 2.2.7. Choosing information sources: the credibility of information .................... 43 2.2.8. Information flow control ....................................................................... 46 2.3. The information needs of independent travellers .......................................... 49 2.3.1. Information search by service consumers ............................................. 50 2.3.2. Tourism information search ................................................................. 54
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2.4. Culture ............................................................................................................... 57 2.4.1. Definition and characteristics ............................................................... 57 2.4.2. Cross-cultural analysis determinants and measurement ......................... 67 2.4.3. Hierarchy of needs .............................................................................. 78 2.4.4. Factors influencing non-verbal communication ...................................... 79 2.4.5. Approaches to cross-cultural research .................................................. 80 2.4.6. Tourism information search and cultural differences ............................... 82 2.5. Conclusions.............................................................................................. 83
CHAPTER 3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ...................................................................................... 85 3.1. Introduction to the conceptual framework .................................................... 85 3.2. Research questions .................................................................................. 86 3.3. Key concepts of the framework .................................................................. 87 3.4. Key stages of the model ............................................................................ 88 3.5. General research hypotheses .................................................................... 94 3.6. Thesis structure ........................................................................................ 95
CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 98 4.1. The research field ..................................................................................... 99 4.2. The timing of the research ....................................................................... 101 4.3. Sampling ................................................................................................ 102 4.4. Survey method ....................................................................................... 105 4.5. Research instrument ............................................................................... 107 4.6. Pilot survey............................................................................................. 115 4.7. Validity and reliability of the research instrument ........................................ 115 4.8. Data Analysis ......................................................................................... 118
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CHAPTER 5 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS ........................................................................................... 120 5.1. Travel behaviour ..................................................................................... 122 5.2. The cultural groups ................................................................................. 127 5.3. The use of travel guidebooks by independent travellers and package travellers ................................................................................................ 132 5.4. Information, characteristics and attributes sought in a travel guidebook by independent travellers.............................................................................. 135 5.4.1. Information sought in a travel guidebook ............................................. 135 5.4.2. Publication edition attributes of travel guidebooks ................................ 140 5.4.3. Quality attributes sought in a travel guidebook ..................................... 142 5.4.4. Price of travel guidebooks ................................................................. 144 5.5. The use of information sources by independent travellers ........................... 146 5.5.1. The impact of cultural background on the use of information sources .... 148 5.5.2. The impact of travel experience on the use of information sources ........ 150 5.5.3. The impact of knowledge about the destination on the use of information sources ........................................................................... 152 5.6. Concluding remarks ................................................................................ 155
CHAPTER 6 THE IMPACT OF CULTURAL BACKGROUND, TRAVEL EXPERIENCE, AND PREVIOUS VISITS TO THE DESTINATION ON THE USE OF TRAVEL GUIDEBOOKS.............................................................................................................. 157 6.1. Types of information sought in travel guidebooks ....................................... 159 6.1.1. Items of information sought by different cultural groups ........................ 159 6.1.2. Types of information sought by different cultural groups ....................... 163 6.1.3. Items of information sought by first-time visitors and repeat visitors to the destination .............................................................................. 172 6.1.4. Types of information sought by first-time visitors and repeat visitors to the destination .............................................................................. 175 6.1.5. Items of information sought by travellers with no or little experience and by experienced travellers............................................................. 180
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6.1.6 Types of information sought by travellers with no or little experience and by experienced travellers – Principal Component Analysis ............. 182 6.2. The use of travel guidebooks to improve travel quality ................................ 188 6.2.1. Cultural differences in the use of travel guidebooks to improve travel quality ..................................................................................... 188 6.2.2. Travel experience and the use of travel guidebooks to improve quality .. 193 6.3. Publication edition attributes preferred in travel guidebooks ........................ 195 6.3.1. Cultural background to determine the publication edition attributes sought in travel guidebooks ............................................................... 195 6.3.2. Travel experience as a determinant of the publication edition attributes sought in travel guidebooks ................................................. 199 6.4. Concluding remarks ................................................................................ 201
CHAPTER 7 STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING.................................................................... 204 7.1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 204 7.2.1. Theoretical Model Development ......................................................... 207 7.2.2. Path diagram construction ................................................................. 208 7.2.3. Model specification ........................................................................... 209 7.2.4. Input matrix type ............................................................................... 214 7.2.5. Identification of the model .................................................................. 215 7.2.6. Evaluation of the model ..................................................................... 216 7.2.7. Model modification ............................................................................ 220 7.2.8. Identification of the final model ........................................................... 221 7.3. The role of importance constructs for information satisfaction with travel guidebooks ............................................................................................. 222 7.3.1. The Japanese sample ....................................................................... 222 7.3.2. The Korean sample........................................................................... 229 7.3.3. The Chinese sample ......................................................................... 235 7.3.4. The North American sample .............................................................. 241 7.4. Conclusions............................................................................................ 247
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CHAPTER 8 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................... 249 8.1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 249 8.2. Main stages of the research ..................................................................... 251 8.3. Discussion of the results .......................................................................... 257 8.4. Marketing implications ............................................................................. 262 8.5. Limitations and future research ................................................................ 267 8.6. Conclusions............................................................................................ 269
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 271
APPENDICES............................................................................................................... 288
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1. Figure 2.2. Figure 3.1. Figure 3.2. Figure 5.1. Figure 5.2. Figure 5.3. Figure 5.4.
Types of information searches Optimal sequential rule / optimal stopping role in information search Initial model Conceptual Framework Age breakdown of the respondents Type of travel by culture Age and cultural groups Are you using a travel guidebook? If yes, when did you obtain the book?
24 27 92 93 126 128 131
132
Figure 5.5.
The use of travel guidebooks by independent travellers and package travellers 133 136 137 145 153 210 211 212 213
Figure 5.6. Figure 5.7. Figure 5.8. Figure 5.9. Figure 7.1. Figure 7.2. Figure 7.3. Figure 7.4. Figure 7.5.
The 10 most important items of information Top ten items of information providing the most satisfaction Price respondents are prepared to pay for a travel guidebook Use of travel guidebooks by first-time and repeat visitors Model specification – Japanese sample Model specification – Korean sample Model specification – Chinese sample Model specification – North American sample Importance constructs for information satisfaction with travel guidebooks (Japanese sample)
228
Figure 7.6.
Importance constructs for information satisfaction with travel guidebooks (Korean sample) 234
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Figure 7.7.
Importance constructs for information satisfaction with travel guidebooks (Chinese sample) 240
Figure 7.8.
Importance constructs for information satisfaction with travel guidebooks (North American sample) 246
VII
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1. Table 2.2. Table 4.1 Table 4.2. Table 4.3. Table 4.4. Table 4.5. Table 4.6 Table 5.1. Table 5.2. Table 5.3. Table 5.4. Table 5.5. Table 5.6. Table 5.7. Table 5.8. Table 5.9.
Differences between collectivist and individualist societies Terminal and instrumental values Tourist arrivals in 2003 and 2004 Sample design Sample frame Questionnaires collected in Sydney Questionnaires collected in Thailand Coefficient alpha and Split-half reliability of the survey instrument Travel behaviour of the respondents Net annual household income Purpose of the trip by cultural groups Length of trip by cultural groups Importance and satisfaction of the top ten pieces of information Characteristics of a travel guidebook Quality attributes of travel guidebooks Importance of information sources while travelling Cross tabulation – Are you using a travel guidebook for the trip? * Importance of sources of information
70 74 100 104 104 104 105 117 124 127 129 130 139 141 143 146
147 148 151
Table 5.10. Importance attributed to information sources by cultural groups Table 5.11. Importance of sources of information by travel experience Table 5.12. Importance of sources of information by knowledge about the destination Table 6.1. Top ten items of information by cultural group
154 160
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Table 6.2.
Differences in importance attributed to information items by each cultural group – Mann-Witney U Test 161 164 167 167 168 169 171 173 176 177 179
Table 6.3. Table 6.4. Table 6.5. Table 6.6. Table 6.7. Table 6.8. Table 6.9.
Items of information used for the principal component analysis Rotated Component Matrix for the Japanese sample Rotated Component Matrix for the Korean sample Rotated Component Matrix for the Chinese sample Rotated Component Matrix for the North American sample Total Variance Explained Top ten items of information by first-time visitors and repeat visitors
Table 6.10. Rotated component matrix of first-time visitors Table 6.11. Rotated component matrix of repeat visitors Table 6.12. Total variance explained for first-time and repeat visitors Table 6.13. Top ten items of information by experienced travellers and travellers with no or little experience Table 6.14. Rotated component matrix of travellers with no or little experience Table 6.15. Rotated component matrix of experienced travellers Table 6.16. Total explained variance Table 6.17. The use of travel guidebooks to reduce risk by cultural groups Table 6.18. Differences in the use of travel guidebooks to reduce risk Table 6.19. The use of travel guidebooks to reduce risk, by travel experience Table 6.20. Edition attributes in order of importance by cultural groups Table 6.21. Cultural differences in the publication edition attributes of travel guidebooks Table 6.22. Preference in edition attributes by travellers with no or little experience, and experienced travellers Table 7.1. Table 7.2. Latent variables included in each exogenous construct Latent variables included in each endogenous construct
181 184 185 187 189 190 193 196
196
200 222 223
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Table 7.3. Table 7.4. Table 7.5.
GOF Measures for the Initial Structural Model (Japanese sample) Regression weights (Japanese sample) A comparison of the GOF of the initial and final model (Japanese sample)
223 224
225
Table 7.6.
Latent variables included in each exogenous construct (Korean sample) 229
Table 7.7.
Latent variables included in each endogenous construct (Korean sample) 229 230 231
Table 7.8. Table 7.9.
GOF Measures for the Initial Structural Model (Korean sample) Regression weights (Korean sample)
Table 7.10. A comparison of the GOF of the initial and final model (Korean sample) Table 7.11. Latent variables included in each exogenous construct (Chinese sample) Table 7.12. Latent variables included in each endogenous construct (Chinese sample) Table 7.13. GOF Measures for the Initial Structural Model (Chinese sample) Table 7.14. Regression weights (Chinese sample) Table 7.15. A comparison of the GOF of the initial and final model Table 7.16. Latent variables included in each exogenous and endogenous construct (North American sample) Table 7.17. GOF Measures for the Initial Structural Model (North American sample) Table 7.18. Regression weights (North American sample) Table 7.19. A comparison of the GOF of the initial and final model Table 7.20. Summary of Structural Equation Modelling results 242 243 243 248 241 235 236 237 237 235 231
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