B.Sc.Dissertation-IOF Nepal 2002 BN JHA

POTENTIAL NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS FOR THE RURAL LIVELIHOOD SUPPORT IN TEHRATHUM DISTRICT OF NEPAL (A Case Study from Jirikhimti VDC) Research Investigator Mr. Bidya Nath Jha B.Sc. (Forestry) Final Year Research Advisor Dr. Ishwar Chandra Dutta Professor, Member Secretary Research Committee & Project Coordinator NTFPs Data Base Project A Dissertation Submitted as a requirement for partial fulfillment for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry Tribhuvan University Institute of Forestry Pokhara Campus, Pokhara Nepal Financial Support Livelihoods & Forestry Program Kathmandu February 2002 Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. i Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. ii Abstract This study, entitled "The Potential Non Timber Forest Products for Rural Livelihood Support in Tehrathum District of Nepal" was aimed to identify the NTFPs that were potential to support the rural livelihood in the study area. The specific objectives of the study were : To list the NTFPs available in the study area, to assess the livelihood conditions of local people, to identify the potential NTFPs that support the livelihood of local people and to determine the status of selected potential NTFPs. The study area selected was a CFUG in Tehrathum district. The main characteristic features of the study area were the endowment of a number of NTFP resources and an established market chain for the resources (Basatpur, Eastern Nepal). The data required to fulfill the objectives of the study were of two types : Resource (NTFPs) data and Socio-economic data. the methods employed for NTFPs data collection were : cumulative listing of the names, participatory mapping, transect walk and resource inventory by plot centered quarter (PCQ) method. the major socio-economic attributes required were : ethnicity, wealth, classes, land, tree and livestock holdings, income status, status of Basic Human Need indicators, CFUG fund, livelihood options etc. The Wealth Ranking, Household Survey, Focus Group Discussion, Triangulation, Direct Observation and stockholder's In-depth Interview were the main tools employed for the collection of these data. The quantitative data were analyzed by statistical means where as attribute (qualitative) data by descriptive Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. iii measures. The well-developed potentiality criteria were used to screen the potential NTFPs. The respondents were found to be heterogeneous and the average family size was found to be six. More than half of the sampled respondents were some way unsatisfied with their food, clothing and housing condition. The assessment of livelihood assets and income status revealed that majority of the users were under some sort of deprivation. Agriculture, though was the major livelihood strategy, but was not supporting livelihood of local people as a whole. However, the community was rich in terms of per capita forest resources and CFUGs fund. The forest was a treasury of a greater number of NTFPs, of them Chiraito, Lokta, Allo, Nigalo etc were the major potential NTFPs. This study, thus, concluded that the NTFPs could serve as an alternative resource for livelihood of local people; since many NTFPs were available for the sustainable harvest. This study recommended the CFUG to have a low interest ' credit' system to their 'poorer members' for the production & management of NTFPs on community land. Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. iv Date : 19 February, 2002 Certificate of Acceptance This is to certify that Mr. Bidya Nath Jha has accomplished his research work satisfactorily for the requisite number of terms under my supervision and guidance. The thesis entitled "Potential Non Timber Forest Products for Rural Livelihood Support in Tehrathum District of Nepal" embodies his own and original work. (Signature) ......................................................... (Prof. Ishwar Chandra Dutta, Ph.D.) Research Advisor Member Secretary, Research Committee, Project Coordinator NTFPs Database Project Institute of Forestry Pokhara, Nepal Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I would like to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to my research advisor professor Dr. I.C. Dutta, for his continuous encouragement, constructive comments and valuable suggestions during the entire research work. I am greatly indebted to Nepal-UK Community Forestry Project/Livelihoods and Forestry programme for both long term scholarship and the financial support for the research work. Their trust upon me has greatly helped me to bring out this report in its current shape. My work could not have been completed successfully without the open-ended support and valuable suggestions provided by the DFO (Tehrathum) staffs, specially DFO Mr. Shyam K. Choudhary, Chhakalitar Range post staffs, and LFP officers Mr. Gopal Kafle & Mr. Uday Poudel. These people are gratefully thanked for their warm hospitality, productive companionship and fruitful sharing of ideas and experiences. This report would not have been possible without the overwhelming response and cooperation shown by the forest users of Bhusune Jiptare CF. Special thanks goes to both committee members and group members who shared their ingenuity, knowledge, and ideas with me. Mr. Prem Renji Sherpa is one of them who is specially thanked for his help in identification & collection of NTFPs specimen. Mr. Ramu Subedi (LFP), Bir Bdr. Shrestha (DFO, Tehrathum), Lies Kerlchoff (VSO, TTM) & Shyam Mohan Mishra (IOF, Pokhara) are the names to be acknowledged for their intentional contribution and personal interest in my work. I am also thankful to Mr. Mani Ram Paudel for digitizing the study area map, Mr. Bhim K. Shrestha for typing, printing and designing the report. I have been in 'forestry' since 1992. From the first day I entered the sector to now, a lot of people enjoyed, blessed helped wished & shaped me what I am today. They include my parents, teachers, friends and relatives. Most of the time I lived by a delicate strand of true friendship. I may be bias by naming them, thus they all are acknowledged and gratituded with my inner heart. Finally, I would like to thank my wife Anamica for her wonderful company, patience and encouragement. Bidya Nath Jha IOF, Pokhara Campus Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstracts Certificate of Acceptance Acknowledgement Table of Contents List of Tables & Figures Abbreviations / Acronyms iii v vi vii x xii Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Focus of the Study 1.3 Problem Statement & Justification 1.4 Objectives of the Study 1.5 Limitations of the Study 1.6 Assumptions 1 2 2 5 5 6 Chapter 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 The Livelihood Concept 2.2 Poverty : Concept, Status & Attempts 2.3 Community Forestry 2.4 The Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) 2.5 NTFPs in Development Plans 2.6 Compatibility of NTFPs & Community Forestry 7 9 11 12 13 14 Chapter 3 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Description of the Study Area & their Selection Criteria 3.3.1 Short Glimpses of Tehrathum District 3.3.2 Short Description of Bhusune Jiptare Community Forest User Group, Jirikhimti 3.3.3 Selection Criteria for the Study Area 3.2 Data Collection Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. 16 18 18 vii 15 15 (a) Primary Data Collection (1) Biophysical (NTFP resource) Data Collection (2) Socio-economic Data Collection (b) Secondary Data Collection 3.3 Data Analysis 3.3.1 Bio-physical (NTFP resource) Data Analysis 3.3.2 Socio-economic Data Analysis 3.4 Screening Criteria for Potential NTFPs to Support Rural Livelihood 19 19 21 24 24 24 25 25 Chapter 4 : RESULT & DISCUSSION 4.1 Characteristics of Household Respondents 4.1.1 Ethnic and Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 4.1.2 Status of Basic Human Need Indicators of the Respondents 4.1.3 Other General Characteristics of Respondents 4.2 Existing Livelihood Conditions 4.2.1 Livelihood Assets (a) Livelihood Assets at Individual Level (b) Livelihood Assets at Community Level 4.2.2 Existing Livelihood Strategies 4.3 The Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) of the Study Area 4.3.1 List of the NTFPs identified in the Study Area 4.3.2 The Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support 4.3.3 Status of the Selected Potential NTFPs 4.3.4 Season of Harvest of Selected Potential NTFPs 4.4 The Ecological Characteristics of Selected NTFPs 4.4.1 Chiraito (Swertia chirayita) 4.4.2 Allo (Girardinia diversifolia) 4.4.3 Lokta (Daphne bholuwa) 4.5 Constraints in the Development of NTFPs in the Study Area 28 28 29 30 31 31 31 36 37 39 39 41 42 43 44 45 44 47 48 Chapter 5 : CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusions 5.2 Recommendations Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. 51 52 viii References 54 Appendices 1. Location map of Tehrathum District & Jirikhimti VDC in Eastern Nepal 2. Map of Jirikhimti VDC & Bhusune Jiptare CF Area 3. Questionnaire for Household Survey 4. Checklist for In-depth Interview 5. The potentiality score of different species 57 58 59 62 63 Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. ix LIST OF TABLES & FIGURES List of Tables 1. Poverty Measurement in Nepal 2. Long Term Target for Poverty Alleviation 3. Example of Records of NTFPs' Inventory 4. The Criteria used for Wealth Ranking 5. Proportional Allocation of Sample Households 6. The Potentiality Criteria and Assignment of Potentiality Values for the NTFPs to be Potential for Rural Livelihood Support. 7. The Ethnic and Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 8. Age, Education and Geographic Stratum of Respondents 9. Landholding Status of the Households 10. Livestock holding Status of the CFUG 11. Tree Holding Status of the CFUG 26 29 31 32 33 34 Page 10 11 20 21 22 12. Income Sources and Mean Annual Income as Per Wealth Class (Per Family) 34 13. The Livelihood Strategies of the Users 14. List of NTFPs Identified from the Study Area 15. The Ten Most Potential NTFPs & Their Potentiality Scores 16. The Growing Stock, MAI, AAH & Effective Area for Selected Potential NTFPs 43 38 39 42 List of Figures 1. Framework for Sustainable Rural Livelihoods 2. The P.C.Q. Method 3. The Categories of Respondents Consulted for the Study 4. The Ethnicity of the Respondents 5. Distribution of Respondents According to BHN Indicator's Status 6. The Income Status and Sources of Income of CFUG 7. The Season of Harvest for Selected NTFPs. 8. The Local Processing of 'Allo' 7 20 24 28 30 35 43 47 Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. x Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS AAH Approx. BS CF CFUG DFO FUG HH LRMP MAI NTFPs OP VDC DDC LFP MFSC USAID NLSS ICIMOD SEANN PCQ DFID GOs NGOs CBS HMG/N IOF ITTO NWFPs FAO MPFS = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Annual Allowable Harvest Approximately Bikram Sambat Community Forestry/Community Forest Community Forest user Group District Forest Office/District Forest Officer Forest User Group Household Land Resource Mapping Project Mean Annual Increment Non-Timber Forest Products Operational Plan Village Development Committee District Development Committee Livelihoods & Forestry Programme Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation United States Agency for International Development Nepal Living Standard Survey International Center for Integrated Mountain Development South East Asian Non Timber Forest Products Network Plot Quarter Centered Department for International Development (UK) Government Organization Non-Government Organizations Central Bureau of Statistics His Majesty's Government/Nepal Institute of Forestry International Tropical Timber Organization Non Wood Forest Products Food & Agriculture Organization Master Plan for Forestry Sector xii Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. MAPs IUCN NUKCFP PRA NRS FECOFUN KDS BHN SLC m 0 = = = = = = = = = = = = Medicinal & Aromatic Plants International Union for the Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources Nepal-UK Community Forestry Project Participatory Rural Appraisals Nepali Rupees Federation of Community Forest User Groups Kami, Damai, Sarki Basic Human Needs School Leaving Certificate Meter Degree Centigrade Millimeter C mm Potential NTFPs for Rural Livelihood Support, Jha, B.N. 2002 ….. xiii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Nepal is a small mountainous kingdom between India & China with an area of 1,47,181 km2. The area covers 0.03% of land area of earth. Nepal's bio-geographic setting, dissimilar topography throughout the country and a surprising climatic variations provide a unique habitat for the luxurious growth of different biological species. Nepal harbors the biological richness of both Indo-Himalayan and Paleartic realms including endemic floral and faunal elements. About 118 types of ecosystems (natural biomes) have been identified in different physiographic zones of Nepal. Only in middle mountain 52 ecosystem exists (Maskey, 1995). Nepal is home to several species of wild plants. She has over 2 percent of flowering plants, 3 percent of pteridophytes, and 5 percent of Bryophytes of the world's flora. Of them 248 and 246 lower & higher plants respectively are endemic to Nepal. In view of the species diversity in wild habitat, Nepal occupies 25th position and 11th position on the global & continental basis respectively (MFSC, 2000). Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), defined as the product other than timber or wood, are the chief component group of the vast number of bio-diversity of Nepal. The most important category of NTFPs is the loose group termed as Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs). There are 2000 Nepali plants reported to have medicinal properties, 1463 are known to be used locally (Shrestha & Shrestha, 1999), and many are demanded by Indian Manufacturers of Ayurvedic Prescriptions (Shrestha, 1994). They contain an unexplored potential for sustaining rural livelihood as a new livelihood option. On the other hand, Nepal stands herself among the poorest countries. The Nepal living standards Survey (NLSS 1996) carried out by the Central Bureau of Statistics with support from the World Bank & USAID estimates the poverty line is about NRs.4400 per capita per annum, cover basic calorie intake, housing and various non-food items. This survey reveals that 42,41 and 56 percentages of people are below the designated povertyline in plains hills & mountain respectively. The proportion is much higher in the 1 rural than urban Nepal and western than Eastern Nepal. In addition to income consumption based poverty surveys (NLSS), Participatory Poverty Assessment have also been undertaken which, rather than rating and ratios, focus more on the perception and process issues of poverty. This assessment outlines the alienation of poorer people in decision making process, limited access over resources and inequitable distribution or hijacking of benefits. Community forestry has been emerging as a prominent sector and as an instrument for sustainable livelihood at rural areas; particularly in the midhills of Nepal. The Non timber forest products (NTFPs) component of community forestry, has been overshadowed by the timber, fuelwood & fodder, despite they have a tremendous potential to support rural livelihood in many ways. However this sub-sector is getting momentum and is seen as potential livelihood option for rural people. 1.2 Focus of the study The two different interfaces of the same rural Nepal present a challenge for the study to the researchers. Nevertheless the researcher was convinced that the rural Nepal has a tremendous potential for both the subsistence and commercial production of NTFPs to support the rural livelihood. The NTFPs resources could provide individual income for persons or families working either during leisure time or full time at least for a certain period of the year. At the same time the Forest user Groups (FUGs) with NTFPs in their forest can earn money by selling the rights to collect these products and distribute 'income' or other direct/indirect benefits equitably. Thus, as a student of forestry, the researcher intended to focus his study on the NTFPs component of Forest Management. In order to make the study manageable the researcher focused on the potential NTFPs to support the rural livelihood. Greater attention was paid to the commercial potentiality of NTFPs through CFUGs than through private forest owners and farmers. 1.3 Problem Statement and Justification for the study:Community forestry initiative of Nepal has developed as a key model in common property management over the globe. CF management have hitherto focussed on 2 development of so-called major forest products : timber, fuelwood and fodder. Edwards (1996) notes three reasons why the FUG process may be excluding NTFPs and NTFP harvesters as (1) Lack of participation (2) NTFPs may not require community management and (3) CF is oriented towards fuelwood, fodder & timber rather than NTFPs. The last few years, however has shown increased concerns over the management of Nontimber forest products. The reasons for such concerns are the recognized socio-economic and environmental roles of NTFPs. The official revenue from the sale of NTFPs from the national forest of Nepal is about 10% of total royaltee of about NRs.320 million (US$ 4.7 million) collected by the department of forests (DOF) during 1997/98. However, their actual contribution to local & national economy is substantially higher (Kanel, 2000). Oleson (1998) estimates that 4,70,000 thousands of households are involved in commercial medicinal plant collection. It means more than 4,70,000 people are involved and depend to some extent on NTFPs. Apart from taking part in the commercial collections with considerable employment opportunities, the majority of Nepalese lay population use wild plants in a variety of ways. Some of them hold immense potential for livelihood support of the local people. Nevertheless, an increasing number of FUGs are showing interest in management of NTFPs (ICIMOD, 1999), this is due to the high potential economic benefit from products that are generally high in value and low in weight and bulk, and relatively easy and cost effective to develop the market. However, there is very little research on the biological, commercial, socio-economic and institutional aspects of NTFPs on Nepal. This is mainly because NFPs are extracted from wild by individual households, and traded through multiple actors & market channels. (Kanel, 2000) Many of the research findings, where performed, are mainly concerned with marketing and trade issues than the definite role of NTFPs to support rural livelihood of the local people. 3 On the other hand, the rural poor people of the mountain & hills who are the traditional collectors of the NTFPs, do not receive the appropriate proportion of benefits generated from their collection of NTFPs. Many researcher believe that NTFPs from the mountain are being over harvested and traded. To verify such generalization there is need for quantification of growing stocks mean annual increment (MAI) and thus annual allowable harvest level. To date such resource assessment has rarely been practiced for NTFPs in Nepal (Parajuli et al, 2000) Even at operational level, the most of the CF operational plan are devoid of the specific provision regarding the NTFPs management. Besides, what are the potential NTFPs in Tehrathum district for livelihood support has not been studied & documented so far. Keeping these ‘gaps’ in consideration, this study was justified and carried out. This study is essential & beneficial in the following ways:(1) This study identifies major NTFPs of the study area, screen them on the basis of potentiality criteria, rural livelihood support and describe the selected species. All these document would be the basis for the separate management plan for the NTFPs. This study will provide a information guideline to begin with the selected species. The growing stock, annual allowable harvest will work for the basis of sustainable harvest. (2) This study pointed out the constraints prevailing in the study area to NTFPs development, which would ease the minimization of such constraints. (3) Delineation and advocacy for the group of vulnerable poorer household by this study would optimally help to reduce the issue of equity and disadvantaged group at local (root) level. (4) This study would not help in establishing database of NTFPs in the study but also help for the further research purposes. Interested professionals, stakeholders or users would find this study useful for their future endeavour. (5) Finally, the study would fulfill the partial requirement for B.Sc. Forestry degree for the researcher. 4 1.4 Objectives of the Study : 1. General Objective: The general objective of the study was to identify the potential NTFPs for the rural livelihood support in the study area. 2. Specific objectives: The specific objectives of the study were:(1) To list the NTFP resources available in the study area. (2) To assess the livelihood condition (assets - emphasis on natural & financial & strategies) of FUG households. (3) To identify (screen) the potential NTFPs that support the livelihood of local people. (4) To determine the status (growing stock, mean annual increment, annual allowable harvest) of selected potential NTFPs. 1.5 Limitations of the study (1) The assessment of livelihood conditions is a vague job that requires a great deal of time, budget and effort. Due to the limited time and budget only natural and financial assets with few important indicators were assessed. (2) The forest area under study was extensively large for the purpose of systematic sampling of NTFP resource. Even a sampling intensity of 0.5% (least for NTFPs) and plot size of 10mx10m were taken, 247 number of plots were required to be surveyed. Besides, the undulated topography was hindering the laying out of plots on the ground. In the prevailing situation the Plot Quarter Centered (PCQ) method of inventory was adopted. The representativeness was assured by purposive location of the sampling transects & points. The number of sampling points was fixed empirically on the basis of standard reference. (3) Detailed information or guideline on inventory method and thus to predicting annual increment of NTFPs was lacking to the date. In such a condition, the MAI and the Annual Allowable Harvest was determined on the basis of some empirical assumptions. The approach under such assumptions was conservative than realistic. 5 1.6 Assumptions:The research findings were based on the following assumptions:(1) The local people of the study area were rational to express their ideas, views, knowledge over their assets and NTFP resources. (2) The sixty number of sampling points and its purposive allocation represented the study area. 6 Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 The Livelihood Concept A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for the means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base (Definition by Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway and cited by Ian Scoones 1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihood System Analysis Framework DFID has developed a framework of sustainable rural livelihood. This framework presents the main factors that affect people's livelihood, and typical relationship between them. It can be used in both planning new development activities and assessing the contribution to livelihood sustainability made by existing activities. This framework suggests that there are number of basic elements which interact and produce sustainable livelihood system in every area. Namely they are contexts, conditions & trends, livelihood resources, institutional process and organizational structures, livelihood strategies and sustainable outcomes. (DFID, 1998). Figure 1 : Sustainable rural livelihood frameworks for analysis (Developed by DFID) VULNERABILITY CONTEXT CAPITAL ASSETS influence TRANSFORMING STRUCTURES & PROCESS LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES LIVELIHOOD OUTCOMES (Source : DFID, 1998) 7 The elements of livelihood are mentioned here in brief : Capabilities : There are varying capabilities that people can achieve in their means of living such as capacity to express views in order to influence decision in making. Activities :- There are various activities that people engage into meeting their living such as farming and laboring. Resources :- There are varying resources sometimes called 'assets' or 'capital' that people draw on for the remains of livings. Carney (1998) and Scoones (1998) identifies five resources, Natural, Economic or Financial, Human, Social and Physical assets. Livelihood strategies:- People adapt various livelihood strategies depending upon the capabilities they have, the activities in which they can engage and extent to which they are able to access different kind of resources. Craney (1998) thinks of these livelihood strategies as shaped by vulnerability context and by transforming structures and processes. Vulnerability context:- There is a need to understand the vulnerability context, which includes the trends (Shock, erosion, health hazard, earthquake etc) that affect people's livelihoods. Transforming structures and process:- These include the working of organizations / such as GOs, NGOs) as well as policies, laws and social institutions, these impact on ability of different people to access different resources and to pursue particular activities. The framework therefore emphasizes that policy and institution must take place at all levels. Livelihood can only be understood by analyzing these elements from a holistic and participatory perspective that examine people's livelihood aspirations. There experience of livelihood outcomes and the values that they attach to different outcomes. (Croney, 1998). 8 The framework doesn't attempt to provide an exact representation of reality. It does however, endeavor to provide a way of thinking about the livelihood of poor people that will stimulate debate and reflection. Thereby improving performance in poverty reduction. In its simplest form, the framework views people as operating in a context of vulnerability. Within this context, they have access to certain assets or producing reducing factors. These gain their meaning and value through prevailing social, institutional and organizational environment. This environment also influences the livelihood strategies - ways of combining and using assets that are open to people in pursuit of beneficial livelihood outcomes that meet their own livelihood objectives. 2.2 Poverty : Concept, status and attempts (1) The Poverty Concept:- The NGOs poverty treaty (1992) (The NGOs forum was part of the UN conference on environment and development (UNCED) held at Rio de Janeiro (in June, 1992) describes poverty as a state of deprivation of the essential elements necessary for human being to live and develop with dignity, physically, mentally, and spiritually, while accounting for specific needs relating to gender, ability/disability, cultural values, age and ethnicity. The treaty further states that poverty is the result of present development model rooted in the exploitation of people and nature. Social inequalities result from unequal access to resources and people's exclusion from the political decision making process. The centralization of power to control natural resources causes simultaneously, poverty and environmental degradation. (2) State of poverty in Nepal:- Poverty in Nepal has been measured with different approaches, and their results are varied accordingly. The approaches adopted for the measurement of poverty and their respective results with remarks is produced below:- 9 Table 1:- Poverty Measurement in Nepal Measurement Approaches Per capita income per annum Percentage of Poor People 71 percent of poor people (Internally accepted threshold of US$150) Expenditure on food 2/3rd of the population lives below poverty line. consumption (Poor-whose food (Lipton, 1982) consumption absorbs 70% or more of total expenditure) Consumption of calorie intake 42 percent of the population living below poverty (2124 calorie per capita line. (Nepal living standard survey CBS (1996)) including non-food item) (3) Government's Efforts to Reduce Poverty : Since mid 1980's several initiatives have been made to raise the economic standard and improve the quality of life of the Nepalese people. The "Basic Needs" programme was announced in December/January 1985 and the topmost priority was given to it in the seventh plan. This programme aimed to fulfil the basic minimum needs of people like food, clothing, shelter, education & public security and raise the economic condition of people to the Asian Standard by the year 2000 A.D. This programme could not bring out any substantial improvement. Nepal was still remained one of the poorest countries of the world. Poverty alleviation has been set out as one of the major objectives of the eighth five year plan and has targeted to reduce population below poverty line from 49 percent to 42 percent at the end of the plan period (CBS, 1998). The Ninth Plan (1997-2000) HMG/N has considered the poverty alleviation as only one principal objective. The plan aims bringing down the population living below the poverty line by 10% to 32% of the total population within 20 years. A detail outline is given below:- 10 Table 2: Long term target for poverty alleviation (in four periodic plans) Periodic plan 9th plan (1998-2002) AD 10th plan (2003-2008) AD 11th plan (2008-2013) AD 12th plan (2013-2018) AD Target to reduce from 45% to 32.5% to reduce from 32.5% to 22.5% to reduce from 22.5% to 15% to reduce from 15% to 10% 2.3 Community Forestry Community forestry (CF) is a policy innovation that aims to provide productive assets for the benefit of the poor by bringing about social changes and establishing efficient property institutions at the local level (Sanwal, 1988). In Nepal, CF can be thought of as an attempt to establish and/or revive the community level institutions capable of managing and making efficient use of their forests. The development of community forestry in Nepal has its origins in two related spheres of debate : concerns about forest destruction and environmental degradation allied to the move towards participatory development in the field of common property resource management. These sets of issues both emerged from concerns, both in Nepal and internationally, that the existing trends in regions such as the hills of Nepal would lead inevitably to environmental catastrophe and the collapse of rural livelihoods. (Soussan, 1998). In early stages of its inception, CF was directed towards creating plantations on wasteland and degraded hill slopes. Degraded forests and plantations were handed over to panchayats (a territorially based politico-administrative unit established under panchayat political system) for management. It took almost a decade to realize that the management control and use rights needed to be handed over to the actual users of forests and not to the 'panchayats'. Hence the process of CF was amended to focus on handing over the forest to their traditional users and providing them with all the support required for managing those forests. The forestry sector policy document (HMG/N, 1989) endorsed CF as a priority programme and ensured its effective implementation through encouraging social aspects of land use, supporting decentralization in resource allocation 11 and decision making and putting priority on resource scarce, poor and socially marginalized in forest management (IOF/ITTO, 1998). The CF regime has attained a measurable height to the date. A total number of FUGs are 10,6789 covering 11,66,721 households are 8,19,562 ha of forest area in 74 districts. (FUG Database, 2001). Passing over different obstacles and difficulties, CF in Nepal now found a certain direction through the support of forest policy, legislation, departmental guidelines and extension - oriented forestry staff. Most of the FUGs have developed consolidated institutional capacity and adopted locally suitable forest management system. This enabled them not only to fulfil their basic forestry needs but also to accrue a considerable amount of money in their FUGs' fund. At large, FUGs are legally authorized to collect, disburse, sell and transport forest products within country following the operational plan, and the various examples have indicated that FUGs in their institutional endeavors, are gradually maneuvered towards monetised sector of economy. Monetisation of CF refers to accrue a considerable amount of money from management of forest and sale of forestry products. (Singh 1998). 2.4 Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) In Nepal all products other than timber, fuelwood and fodder are classified as NTFPs (Edwards, 1996). NTFPs, is a new name for minor forest products (MFPs), which was used in Nepalese forestry for over half a century. Another term used specially in FAO literature is non-wood forest products (NWFPs). Among these terms, the common factor is the forest product which is not wood/timber (Shrestha, 1999). A forest ecosystem consists of trees, shrubs, herbs, epiphytes, parasites, saprophytes, and micro organisms. Harvesting various components of the ecosystem except the wood means harvesting NTFPs, these include medicinal and aromatic herbs, spices and condiments, bast fibres and grasses for paper pulp or textile fibre; wild edibles like ferns, rhizomes, mushrooms, vegetables and fruits; fodder grasses, leaf litter and manure. Other important products are rattan, canes, bamboos etc. (Shrestha, 1999) Every year 10,000 to 15,000 tonnes of NTFPs, representing around 100 species, are harvested from forest land in the middle hills and high mountains of Nepal are traded to 12 India. Those that are traded fall roughly into two groups : high value products from high altitude and low-value products from lower altitudes. The most important category is the loosely termed 'medicinal and aromatic plants'. Some 800 more NTFPs apart from the 100 or so that are traded, find subsistence uses as food, spices, herbal medicines, tannins, dye stuffs, gums, resins, incenses, oils, fibers and construction materials. They are of considerable importance to rural livelihoods. (Edwards, 1996) Oleson (1998) estimates that 470,000 thousands of households are involved in commercial medicinal plants collection, which is just a part (though major) of the whole NTFPs component. Apart from taking part in commercial collections with considerable employment opportunities, the majority of Nepalese lay population use wild plants in a variety of ways. In case of traded NTFPs, the majority of produce passes to India for processing. Indian entrepreneurs have always exerted considerable control over the trade. The price received by NTFP harvesters in Nepal is, on overage 32 percent of the final price given by Indian industries raw materials. (Edwards, 1996). The marketing network, dubbed "The Jadibuti Trail" by Manisha Aryal (1993) in operation for a very long time. Even during the early 1960s, the mountain people were heavily exploited. They still do not get their fair share from the herbal trade and the story has not changed. "... mountain peasants get to see only a tiny fraction of profit. .... " 2.5 NTFPs in Development Plans:The Master Plan for Forestry Sector (1988) defined MAPs and other forest products other than wood as minor forest product, MPFS focused on seven such products. MAPs, Lokta paper, pine resin, sal seeds, katha, sabai grass & canes & bamboo. This plan further advice that approx. 5 percent of total budget should be allocated to MAPs & other MFP programmes. Of this amount 46% is to be allocated to the development of minor forest products and approx. 35% will be used to develop MAPs (HMG/N, 1988). The National Conservation Strategy (1988) has duly emphasized the conservation and development of medicinal plants. This has been done not only to help alleviate the poverty in the villages but also to increase national income. 13 The Ninth Five Year Plan (1991-2002) stresses on separate research and development programme, through a series of activities such as technical assistance, market management, determination of the level of collection, support, training and extension services etc. Moreover, emphasis has been given on increasing production of high value medicinal plants by incorporating activities of governmental and non-governmental organizations. 2.6 Compatibility of NTFPs and community forestry Community participation in resource management and environmental conservation has been widely advocated in the recent past through a number of international environmental and policy documents such as "Our Common Future", "caring for the earth (IUCN, 1991) "World Development Report (Word Bank) and" Agenda 21 (UNCED, 1992). A compelling reason for supporting community resource management is its importance for the poor. Rights to common property resources (i.e. NTFPs) are all that separates the landless & rural poor from destitution. Participation fosters improvement in socioeconomic conditions, create a sense of resource ownership and strengthens the capacity of individuals & communities to mobilize and help themselves, thus minimizing dependence on the state (Karki, 2000). Community forestry is oriented towards production of major forest products, especially fuelwood and fodder. However, forest products occupy such a diverse range of ecological niches that they can not be treated or managed as a single entity (Edwards, 1996). The community management of naturally occurring NTFPs may require cooperation on a different scale for a larger area of land and a different group of users from a number of communities. In principle there is no reason why user groups can not be formed solely for the production of specific NTFPs rather than just for fuelwood and fodder. (Edward 1996). However, the effectiveness of CF needs to be examined with communities that wish to manage two or more forest products with very different ecological niches on the same area of land (Edwards, 1996). 14 Chapter - 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.3 Description of the Study Area and their Selection Criteria The study area selected for the study was the Bhusune Jiptare community forest user group, Jirikhimti VDC, in Tehrathum district of Eastern Nepal. 3.3.1 Short Glimpses of 'Tehrathum' district: Terathum district is situated in the middle hills of Koshi zone of eastern Nepal. The district lies between 27057' to 28030' North latitude and 87025' to 87045' East longitude. The altitudinal range varies from 345m to 2962m. Total area of Tehrathum district is 66,857 ha out of which forest area covers 23,987 ha (LRMP, 1987). Panchthar and Taplejung in the East, Dhankuta in west, Taplejung and Sankhuwasabha in North and Dhankuta and Panchthar in South are the districts boundary of Tehrathum. The general features of the district are as follows: Climate: Tehrathum possesses three types of climates; sub-tropical, temperate & cool temperate. It receives monsoon rain from June to November. The average rainfall is 1250 mm. It rains 70% in May to August. Winter rain occurs at lower altitude. The average minimum and maximum temperatures are 100C and 300C respectively. Average relative humidity is 75%. Frost occurs at 1500m to 2500m. Soil: Most of the soils of the district are made from Mica and Schist type of rocks. Red, black, loam & sandy types of soil are prevalent. The average pH ranges from 6 to 7. The soil is fertile due to presence of higher level of organic matter content. Vegetation: The drier and lower altitude is constituted with Khayar (Acacia catechu), Pine (Pinus roxburghii), Karma (Adina cordifolia), Jamun (Syzygium cumini) and mixed hard wood forest. At a successive altitude Castanopsis - Schima forest, Utis (Alnus nepalensis) forest and mixed broad leaved forest is prevalent. At higher slopes Quercus 15 spps, Rhododendron species and mixture with other broad leaved forest is present. Besides pure pine and Rhododendron forest are also found on higher altitudes & ridges. Demography: A recent (BS 2058) census (draft from DDC) outlines total population of the district as 11,41,128 out of which 55,541 is male population & rest (58,587) is female. Average family size is 5.9 and the population density is 180 individuals per sq.km. Majority of people belongs to religion Hindu & Baudha having Limbu, Rai, Brahmin, Chhetri, Gurung, Newar, Magar & Sherpa ethinic castes which make Tehrathum ethnically heterogenous. Around 95% of the population are based on agriculture. Status of Community Forestry: Upto July 2001, the district forest office have 284 no. of FUGs registered, occupying 12145.01 ha of forest land and 21201 number of households. 3.3.2 Short description of the Bhusune Jiptare CFUG, Jirikhimti, Tehrathum Location : The forest is located within the Jirikhimti VDC in Northern part of the Tehrathum district. The residents of Jirikhimti W.N.5,7,8,9, Ambung (VDC) W.N. 1,2 & 3 are the traditional users of the forest. The calculated area (by graph method) is 493 ha. The village is accessible by a fair weather road from Basantpur or a five hours walk. The Forest:- The altitude of the forest area ranges from 2250 m to 2700m and the aspect is south facing. The angle of slope varies between 300 to 560. The forest harbors upper sub-tropical and lower temperate types of forest (mainly broad leaves). The major species are Patle katus (Castanopsis hystrik), Chilaune (Schima walichii), Gurans (Rhododendron species), Oak/Phalant/Kharsu (Quercus species), Kholme/Kharane (Symplocos species), Kaulo etc. The tree species carrying NTFPs values are Gurans, Bhujapate, Asare (Lagerstroemia parviflora), Kholme, Kharome, Siltimur (Zanthoxylum oxyphylum), Dhyangre salla 16 (Taxus baccata), Madelo, Chimal etc. Major NTFPs in the forest was Chiraito (Swertia chirayita), Lokta (Daphne bholuwa), Allo (Girardinia diversifolia), Argelli (Edgeworthia gardneri), Nagbeli (Lycopodium clavata), Majitho (Rubia manjith), Malingo/Nigalo (Arundinaria species) etc. The protection & management: The forest is being operated under CF since BS.2053, before that it was under government protection. Theft and illicit removal of forest product was a common occurrence. The NUKCFP/DFO Team appraised users in the surrounding, consequently a general meeting (assembly) held in 2053 and the FUG was formed & registered. Management objectives quoted in the operational plan are : 1) to protect the water resources 2) to supply fodder, fuelwood & timber 3) to improve the soil conservation 4) to achieve an improvement in the local environment & 5) to protect the forests & wild animals. Provision about NTFP: The operational plan (OP) and constitution of FUG do not reflect any specific provision regarding NTFPs. Broadly it states that conservation and management of Jadibuti (Medicinal plants) will be done. However, the minutes of committee meeting and assembly meetings show ban on Chiraito collection before seed ripening. A fair punishment was also recorded in the minute register to some of the offenders. Similarly, Lokta was collected and sold for local traders. A collection ban for Taxus leaves was also found to be imposed temporarily. The community: This user group is a true example of a heterogenous group. The total number of households is 354, out of which Limbu (26.38%) Brahmin (24.28%), Gurung (22.32%), and Sherpa (16.38%) constitutes major part of the population, while Chetri (10%), Damai (10%), Tamang (1.69%), Sarki (1.13%), Kami 1.13%) & Newar (0.28%) are in minority. 17 The average family size for one household is six. The female population constitutes 48.62% of the total population. The total population was found to be 2070, out of which 1068 was male. 3.3.3 Selection criteria for the study area:Tehrathum district was selected because:1) Livelihood and forestry programme, the supporting institution for this study, has implicitly set a guideline to conduct the study within the seven districts in which LFP is operating. 2) Out of the seven districts, Tehrathum is one of the seven district well known for availability and trade of varieties of NTFPs. 3) The researcher was familiar and experienced with the district in particular the selected VDC & CFUGs. Following criteria were considered to select the CFUG:1) FUG with higher number and value of NTFPs. 2) FUG with a number of diversified ethnicity people and focus group who uses the NTFPs. 3) FUG with a larger amount of money in its fund. 4) FUG nearer with the road head market of NTFPs 3.4 Data collection (a) Primary Data Collection: Types of Universe: The data required to fulfil the research objectives were two types. (1) Biophysical (NTFPs Resource) data and (2) Socio-economic (community) data. For the NTFPs data, the universe was the 493 ha. of forest area. The items for measurement were ranging from few on long herb to a stout tree. For the socio-economic data the universe was 354 number of households. Sampling Technique:Biophysical (NTFP resource data): The point centered quarter method (PCQ) method, as suggested by Rabindranath & Premnath, (1997) was adopted. It is a transect based point 18 sampling method, and is better suited for large areas, uneven terrain and randomly distributed species. A detail of the method is dealt in the following section. Socio-economic data:- A list of all households were obtained and categorized in 5 wealth rank classes. A 10 percent sample (36 HHs) were randomly selected with proportional representation of all the 5 wealth rank classes (stratified sampling). 1. Resource (NTFPs) Data Collection Resource (NTFPs) Mapping (Participatory Mapping) A topographical map of the study developed by IUCN were received from the DFO, Terhathum. It was used to get the general idea of topography of study area. The participatory sketch map was delineated roughly on the ground. The local informants filled up the 'themes' within the delineated boundary on the ground. The 'effective area' for the major NTFPs were particularly emphasized. A note on the paper was taken, the themes were converted on original (traced) map and the 'effective area was obtained. Transect walk: To develop an overall idea and identification of NTFP species, a participatory transect walk through established trail was done. During this work, some specimens were also collected. NTFPs inventory by P.C.Q. Method: After the listing, screening and identifying the potential NTFPs of the area, the resource (NTFPs) inventory was conducted. The purpose of this Resource inventory was to determine the status (Growing Stock, MAI, AAH) of selected potential NTFPs. The method adopted for this purpose was the point centered Quarter (P.C.Q.) method. The following procedure was adopted:An inventory was carried out to list the resources and only 10 most potential species were considered. They were Chiraito, Lokta, Allo, Argelli, Majitho, Nigalo, Malingo, Siltimur, Sunthangne (Nagbeli) & Dhingre salla. 19 Six transects, each 500m long, were located purposively in the 'effective areas of the CF. The representation was ensured with respect to known variations in NTFP species. The transect direction was maintained with the aid of a pocket compass. Other instruments used in this method were a 30m long measuring tape and a hand made bamboo cross nailed together at the center. On each of the transect line at a distance of every 50m 'Sampling points' were established & measurements were taken. At each sampling point, the bamboo cross was placed to maintain well defined quarter. For each 'quarter' the nearest plant is identified and the distance between the center & the nearest plant (d) was measured. In case, where there was no plant within 30m or the plant was of other species than selected (ten) species, a blank was recorded. The following box outlines the method:- Figure 2 : The P.C.Q. method quadrate-1 50 m 1st quarter 2nd ♣ ♣ ♣d d 4 1 4th Bamboo cross 3rd Second sample point 50m Transect line ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ d♣ d2 ♣ 3 ♣ Fist sample point Source : Rabindranath & Premnath (1997) Example of Record is also produced here:- Table 3 : The Example of Records of NTFPs' Inventory Sample point 1 1st 2nd as so on 3.6 5.1 Swertia Chiraita Dhaphne bholuwa Quarter d (in m) NTFP species Remarks (if any) 20 Seasonal calendar for selected NTFPs:- The time of harvesting and trading of selected NTFPs has been identified in the focus group discussion. The time thus obtained was verified with reliable secondary source & a 'calendar' was developed. (4) Socio-economic data collection The socio-economic attributes required for the fulfillment of the research objectives were, ethnicity & demography, wealth classes, landholdings, livestock holdings, tree holdings, mean annual income of household, contribution of NTFPs, adequacy of housing & clothing, per capita resource base & access over it, existing livelihood options & preference etc. For all these 'attributes' following participatory rural appraisal (PRA) methods were employed:• Wealth Ranking :- Upon making a list of all the households and their members from FUG register, the households were categorized into 5 different ranks with wealth ranking exercise. The objective of the wealth ranking exercise was to ensure the representation of all wealth classes particularly of very poor (vulnerable) & poor wealth classes. For this purpose a team exercise was carried out in a school (public place) and all interested villagers contributed voluntarily. Following were the criteria for such categorization: Table 4 : The criteria used (by local informants) for wealth ranking Ranking criteria Very poor 0-3 0-2 Wealth Ranking classes Poor Middle Rich 3-5 2-4 5-15 4-8 15-25 8-10 Very Rich above 25 More 10 1. Productive land holding (in ropani/HH) 2. Livestock Holding (converted to cow units/Hh) 3. Mean Annual Income (NRs./ HH/Annum) 4. Housing Condition 5. Self dependency on foodconsumption 6. Tree holding (of 6" dia) (no/ family) 7. Participation in decision making burden, benefit sharing & social leadership More than 36,000 Limited Not Just Sufficient Luxuriou adequate adequate s Totally Partially Indepen Sufficient Selling dependent dependent dent 0-5 5-10 10-20 20-40 More than 40 Not Induced Consulted Yes Active (Optional) 21 18,000 24,000 30,000 36,000 Households Survey:- Covering all the (five) wealth rank classes, household (HH) survey was carried out for the ethnic and demographic data; land, livestock & tree holding data; data for basic human need indicators; data for the livelihood strategies (occupation) and data on NTFPs species, availability, status, trade & season of harvest. Ten percent of total households (36 HHs) was taken randomly and a semi-structured questionnaire were used (Shown in Appendix No.3). The following table shows the proportional allocation of household samples according to wealth class : Table 5: Proportional allocation of sample households (according to wealth classes). S.N. Wealth Rank Class Total no. of HHs categorized 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Total • Very Poor (A) Poor (B) Middle (C) Rich (D) Very Rich (E) 62 41 164 43 44 354 Sample selected (by 10%) 7 5 16 4 4 36 Focus Group Discussion: 'Focus Group' here refers to the group highly concerned with the NTFPs. The total households were stratified on the basis of their concern over the NTFPs. The purpose of such stratification was to differentiate the households who had a better experience over the use, availability and trade of many NTFPs such that the ideas, knowledge, practice and their attitude about NTFPs could be tapped. A total of 227 HHs was identified as passively concerned, 69 households as intermediately concerned and 58 as highly concerned. The exercise carried out at the same place & time as that of wealth ranking. The criteria for such stratification were the degree of involvement of the household in the NTFPs collection, use, trade etc. 22 The most concerned group (58 HH) was almost homogenous in their ethnicity (majority Sherpas) and of the same location (Harishe, Jirikhimti). They were discussed with a pre-planned checklist. The information collected during the focus group discussion were mainly related with the NTFPs. The information on the marketing potential of particular products, competition, constraints to business, profitability were obtained. The ecological data related to NTFPs collected during the focus group discussion were availability of species (in time & space), regeneration potential, impact of harvesting etc. besides social and institutional and processing information were also collected. • Triangulation:- The majority of socio-economic data obtained from primary sources were verified by at least additional two other sources. This ensures the unbiasness authenticity and accuracy of data. For example, data related to 'possessions' of household was verified by neighbourhood household & committee members. • Direct observation:- Many of the socio-economic data such as housing condition, adequacy of clothing etc were felt & observed directly. The NTFP richness & their status were also observed directly. • In Depth Interview: A number of intensive, unstructured interview were organized & conducted with different stakeholders, including the key informants, harvesters & traders, technicians, middlemen, traditional healers, teachers, VDC representatives & others. The people concerned with the required data were interviewed as resource person, from the CFUG or outside the CFUG. The purpose of In-depth interview was to obtain the different data of both socioeconomic and bio-physical (NTFP resource) types. In addition verification of data from household survey was also done during these interviews. The socio-economic data, either verified or obtained from these interviews were possession data, demographic status, CFUG fund status etc. On the other hand the data on NTFPs' economic potential, processing technology, marketing chains, 23 problems to development, propagation technique, price and demand status were collected during these interviews. Figure 3 : The categories of respondents consulted for the study Focus Group Committees Households VDC, DDC, FECOFUN Collectors, farmers traders Respondents DFO/Project (LFP)/NGO Active members from other CFUGs Key informants Other Technical Institutions (b) Secondary Data Collection The theories and conceptual literatures concerned with the research were conducted in different libraries, including IOF library, LFP library, FRS Center library & ICIMOD library. Secondary data on the geography, physiography, land use, ethnicity, climate & soil, vegetation etc. of the district were collected from DDC records and district profile of Tehrathum. Similarly the status of forest and community forest in the district was collected from DFO records. Similarly the CFUG minute register, operational plan & constitution and other records were used to collect the profile of the CFUG. The maps of the study area were obtained from Department of Land Survey, Kathmandu. 4.3 Data Analysis 3.3.1 Bio-physical (NTFP resource) data analysis : • Density / Growing Stock of the NTFPs species were calculated by 1 1 Density (Growing Stock = ----- x 10000 = ---- x 10000 in no./ha) (∑d)2 (D)2 Where 24 d = The point to plant distance (in meters) D = ∑d = Sums of all the point to plant distances for a particular species. • Mean Annual Increment (MAI) was calculated by : G.S. MAI = -----------------------------Age of the crop (NTFPs) Where, MAI = Mean Annual Increment (in No./ha) G.S. = Growing Stock (in No./ha) Ages for different crops were estimated by participatory methods. • Annual Allowable Harvest (AAH) Calculation AAH (No./ha) = 70% x MAI = 0.7 x MAI Where, AAH = Annual Allowable Harvest MAI = Mean Annual Increment This allowable harvests were applicable to respective effective areas of the species. 3.3.2 Socio-economic data analysis Since, this is more or less a qualitative research in nature, descriptive analysis approach was used in analyzing the data, the analysis resulted in profile of the CFUG on the basis of pre-determined attributes. Explanation building was used in analyzing the data. Percentages, mean, pie diagram & other statistical charts/tables/graphs were also used for analyzing the data. 3.6 Screening criteria for potential NTFPs to support rural livelihood Basis of Elimination: The candidature of less important NTFPs were eliminated from taking part in the potentiality test against a set criteria for potential NTFPs. The basis of elimination were the less economic potential & minimum ecological availability. The elimination exercise conducted with local key informants. 25 Assignment of 'potentiality value': The rest NTFPs after elimination, were examined for their potentiality value for rural livelihood support. Four major criteria and their sub criteria were used for this purpose. Following table shows the criteria, their scaling and assignment of potentiality value. Table 6 : The potentiality criteria and assignment of potentiality values for the NTFPs to be potential for Rural Livelihood Support Criteria Scale and potentiality value (in bracket) (A) Economic/Marketing 1. Market Large (3), Moderate (2), Limited (1) 2. Competition Low (3), Moderate (2), High (1) (5) Constraints to Business entry Low (3), Moderate (2), Severe (1) (6) Margins/Profitability High (3), Moderate (2), Low (1) (B) Ecology/Environment 1. Availability (in time) Almost always (3), Occasionally (2), Rarely/Seasonal (1) 2. Availability (in CF) Widespread (3), Moderately (2), Rare (1) 3. Amount of time needed to find & harvest Small (3), Modest (2), Long (1) 4. Impact of Harvesting on the survival of Minimal (3), Moderate (2), Severe (1) species 5. Regenerative Potential High (3), Moderate (2), Low (1) (C) Social/Institutional 1. Distribution of benefits within the Well-distributed (3), Reasonable (2), community Limited (1) 2. Contribution to incomes High (3), Modest (2), Low (1) 3. Experience with the product High (3), Modest (2), Low (1) 4. Potential for employment creation High (3), Modest (2), Low (1) 5. Gender Impact Only women (3), Both women & Men (2), Only men (1) D. Science/Technology 1. Processing Technology Manual/dispersed (3), Mechanical (2), Sophisticated technology (1) 2. Processing technology, expertise High (3), Moderate (2), Low (1) 26 The relevant information on 'candidate' species was collected from different relevant stakeholders and they assigned the values. The 'values' assigned was verified and rectified by secondary sources of information such as standard references and manuals. 27 Chapter 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Characteristics of Household-Respondents: 4.1.1 Ethnic and Demographic characteristics of respondents (households) The household respondents ethnically were heterogenous. 'Limbu' (36.11%) and Gurung (19.44%) were the major ethnic groups. The distribution of respondents as per ethnic/caste is shown in the Table 7. The pie chart below shows the distribution of households in three groups Brahmin/Chhetri (19.45%), Ethnic Caste group (Limbu, Gurung, Sherpa & Tamang) (72.22%) and Dalit Caste group (Kami, Damai, Sarki) (8.33%) Figure 4 : The ethnicity of the respondents 19.45% 8.33% 72.22% Brahmin/Chhetri Dalit Caste Group Ethnic Caste Group Hence, dalit caste group has lower respondent while ethnic caste group the highest and the Brahmin, Chhetri in between the two. 28 The total population of the sample households were 206, out of which 105 were male and 101 were female. The overall family size found to be six. The population (male, female, total) and average family size as per ethnicity is presented in the Table 7. Table 7:- Ethnic and Demographic characteristics of respondents S. N. Ethnicity Households No. Percenta ge (%) 1. 2. 3. 4. Brahmins Chhetri Limbu KDS or Dalit Caste Group 5. 6. 7. Gurung Sherpa Tamang Total 7 5 1 36 19.44 13.89 2.78 100 20 13 3 105 28 15 2 101 48 28 5 206 6.86 5.60 5 5.72 5 2 13 3 13.89 5.56 36.11 8.33 17 2 45 5 12 5 35 4 29 7 80 9 5.80 3.50 6.15 3.00 Population (in Number) Male Female Total Family size This table indicates that Limbu dominates in the area followed by Gurung. 4.1.2 Status of Basic Human Need (BHN) indications of the respondents:Three major BHN indicators considered were the food sufficiency, housing condition and adequacy of clothing. Food sufficiency here refers to the condition in which a household is secured for food stuffs for a definite period of time, particularly from own sources. Out of 36 households sampled, only 13 (36.11%) households were found food sufficient, rest 23 (63.89%) households were under some sorts of seasonal food deficit. To determine the Housing condition, three main indicators were used : (1) the wall of the house (Chitra, thatch or wooden), loose stone, stone with cement mortar & plastered, (2) the roof of the house (thatched, galvanized, tile & concrete) & (3) the number of 29 storey (ground, 1st, 2nd). On these bases, 50% of households (18) was found deprived of just adequate quality of housing condition. Regarding the 'adequacy of clothing', the household heads placed themselves in 3 major classes. A total of 9 (25%) households felt deficient in clothing throughout the year 17 (47.22%) households were found seasonally (in winter) deficient. Figure 5 shows the detail of the distribution of respondents as per the BHN indicator's status: Figure 5: Distribution of respondents according to BHN indicator's status 13.89% 11.11% 8.33% 19.44% 16.67% 19.44% 22.22% 33.33% 22.22% Sufficient less than 6 months Sufficient for 9-12 months Surplus Sufficient for 6-9 months Sufficient for whole year Limited Not adequate Just adequate Sufficient 33.33% Luxurious 27.78% 25% 47.22% Deficient Seasonally Deficient Sufficient 4.1.2 Other general characteristics (Age, Education & geographic stratum) of respondents The majority of respondents (80.56%) were of the age between 20 to 60 years (below 60) i.e. economically active group. Only 7 (19.44%) respondents were of the age 60 years or above i.e. economically inactive group. 30 The education status of the respondents the poor, since about 78% of the respondents were found to be either illiterate or just literate. The number of respondents with SLC education was only 4 (11%). The table below gives the overall picture about age, education & geographic stratum of respondents: Table 8: Age, Education & geographic stratum of respondents General Characteristics S. N. Age Classes Households (Years) No. Percent 1 2. 3. 4. 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 4 8 7 10 11.11 22.22 19.44 27.78 Education Classes (Level) Illiterate Literate Primary Lower secondary Geographic Stratum Classes Households No. Percent 4 5 1 9 11.11 13.88 2.77 25 Households No. Percent (VDC-WN) 7 21 2 2 19.44 58.33 5.55 5.55 Ambung-1 Ambung-2 Jirikhimti-5 Jirikhimti-7 5. 6. 60-70 Above 70 3 4 8.33 11.11 Secondary 4 11.11 Jirikhimti-8 Jirikhimti-9 13 4 36.11 11.11 7. Total 36 100 36 100 36 100 4.2 Existing Livelihood conditions 4.1.3 Livelihood Assets:- The study was focused on the analysis of natural and financial assets (capitals) available to the FUG members to sustain their livelihood. While assessing these assets, they were considered at two levels first at individual and second on the group (community) (a) Livelihood Assets(natural/Financial) at Individual level 31 ♦ Land Holding:- The households had different types of their land holding, such as khet 1 , bari 2 , pakho 3 , kharbari 4 & forest. For the sake of simplicity in analysis all these types of land were classified in productive land (khet+bari+forest) and unproductive land (kharbari, pakho & others). The following table presents a total view of landholding status of the CFUG. Table 9: Landholding status of the households Types of land Area of land (in ropani) 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 above 30 Total No. of households 3 11 4 6 6 2 4 36 8.33 33.56 11.11 16.67 16.67 5.55 11.11 100 Productive Percent Unproductive No. of households 13 7 8 1 1 4 2 36 36.11 19.44 22.22 2.78 2.78 11.11 5.55 100 Percent 1 ropani = 0.052 ha, or 1/20 ha approx. Among the sampled households 50% of households had less than 15 ropani (0.75 ha) of productive land. Only 11% (4) had more than 30 ropani (1.5 ha) of productive land. The poor land holding status of majority of people indicates a higher level of dependency on the natural resources like forest. Besides, the data also indicates the existence of subsistence type of farming. An eleven number of households have just 5-10 ropanis of productive lands which indicated the existence of agriculture in its fragmented form. This had marginalised the per unit productivity of the land. 1 2 Khet : Irrigated productive land Bari : Unirrigated less productive land 3 Pakho : Barren, unproductive land 4 Kharbari : Pasture, considered unproductive land for agriculture purpose. 32 ♦ Livestock Holding:- The livestock ownership was found to be a dominant form of wealth in the study area. It was found to be a key determinant of household income (discussed later). Buffaloes and cows were the most commonly raised livestock among Brahmins & Chhetri; whereas the ethnic caste group was also found to be rearing pigs, goats and sheeps were found in smaller number, but they were the primary sources of cash income. For the sake of uniformity, the every number livestock is converted to a common unit - i.e. cow unit. (1 buffalo = 2 cow units c.u.), 1 cow = 1 c.u., 1 goat/sheep = 1/2 c.u., 1 pig = 1 (c.u.) One of the prominent feature of the FUG in this regard was that no household was found to be completely devoid of livestock, irrespective of the wealth classes. A complete list of livestock holding and household distribution is shown in table below: Table 10: Livestock holding status of FUG S.N. No. of Livestock (in cow units) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 >12 Distribution of sampled households Number 6 7 11 5 7 3 36 Percentage (%) 16.67 19.44 30.56 13.89 11.11 8.33 100 The table shows that two third of the total household sampled were distributed to have at least two to eight number of cow-units of livestock. This was what make people dependent on CF for the fodder supply to rear the livestock, since maximum people had minimum private land holdings. 33 ♦ Tree holding:- Tree were considered as an 'asset' when it was exceeding the diameter of 6" and grown on private land. Most of the households (except 'very poor' as ranked by wealth ranking) had at least 4-5 trees. The tree holding status of the FUG is presented in the table below. Table 11: Tree holding status of CFUG S.N. Number of Tree holding Distribution of Households Numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 Above 25 Total 7 4 8 2 6 9 36 Percentages 19.44 11.11 22.22 5.56 16.67 25 100 The distribution of 25% of household in the above 25 number of trees holding category; signifies the existence of 'private' tree/forest raising in the area. ♦ Income and Income sources:- Income for the household was derived in terms of mean annual income. Each household, while household survey, also assessed, asked and verified for their Mean Annual Income (MAI). The sources of income & their contribution in total income were also noted. An average was calculated for each wealth class separately. The sources of income and their contribution in Mean Annual Income (proportion) were also received. The following table & figure show the mean annual income (MAI), Income sources & their proportional contribution to Mean Annual Income as per wealth class:- Table 12: Income sources and mean annual income as per wealth class (per family) 34 S.N. Wealth Rank Class Income sources & their contribution (in %) Agriculture Livestock Off-farm Mean Annual Income (per family) (NRs) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Very poor Poor Middle Rich Very Rich Overall Mean 8.19 12.10 34.79 21.92 18.28 19.06 7.60 6.64 8.23 3.25 3.11 5.77 84.21 81.26 59.98 74.83 78.6 75.17 21740 24600 48,620 62,880 1,14,860 54540 The following figure shows the income status as per wealth class of CFUG; and their sources with respective contributions. Figure 6: The mean annual income and their sources as per wealth class per family. 100% 7.6 8.19 6.64 12.1 8.23 3.25 21.92 3.11 18.28 80% 60% 40% 84.21 81.26 34.79 74.83 56.98 78.6 20% 0% (NRs.21740) Very (NRs.24600) Poor Poor (NRs.48620) Middle (NRs.62880) Rich (NRs.114860) Very Rich Off-farm Agriculture Livestock From the above table & figure, it is clear that the middle wealth class people were more dependent on the agriculture than others. The contribution off-farm sources of income for both extreme wealth classes were higher. But the meaning of off-farm sources were different for the two extreme classes of people. Pension, remittances, office work and 35 business were the off-farm sources for very rich class of people, whereas, wage earning, small scale shop keeping etc. were off farm sources for very poor wealth classes. The income from livestock rearing was not exceeding a fraction of ten for any wealth class. This indicated the stunted productivity from livestock, despite their rearing larger number per family. NTFPs' contribution to Mean Annual Income Only two households out of 36 (5.56%) accepted that they had generated income from NTFPs sale. They both were of middle wealth rank class. One of them was Chiraito collected for sale and other sold diversified product throughout the year. The both were middle wealth rank. The Chiraito collector estimated an amount of NRs.6200 (20 kg @ 310 Rs/kg) per annum and the other as NRs.5400 (NRs.450 per month). The both income constitutes 12.75% and 11.11% respectively for the Mean Annual Income of 'Middle' Wealth class. Sixteen households (44.44%) were found to be collecting the NTFPs from forest either for medical or for subsistence purpose. (b) Livelihood Assets of Community (FUG) level ♦ Per Capita Resource Base:- The forest was the main natural resource for common use in the study area. The total area of the forest (calculated by graph method) was found to be 493 ha. and the estimated effective area for resource consumption (use) purpose was traced to be 458.50 ha (83%), the rest 34.50 ha (17%) was accounted for rivers, rocks, open area etc. The total forest area per family was calculated 1.39 ha (Approx. 28 ropani). If 5.72 was taken as an average family size then forest resource per capita came to 0.24 ha (Approx. 5 ropani). The full economic potential of the forest resource requires an investigation, however, the average supply per annum for timber & fuelwood from FUG register were obtained and calculated 1380 cft and 2100 bhari (1 bhari = 30 kg) respectively. 36 ♦ CFUG Fund:- The CFUG was found to be rich comparatively, on the basis of fund. At the time of study (Kartic, 2058 BS), the cash in the FUG Fund was NRs.53,850. Besides a moving fund in the form of credit for poor households was estimated to be NRs.12,600. Royalty from the distribution of forest products was the major source (87%) of FUG fund, prize money (from IUCN & DFO) the 2nd source of FUG fund (9%). Only 4% of FUG fund was accounted for other sources than royalty and prize. ♦ Other Assets:- The CFUG had some physical assets in the form of seized harvesting tools from offenders, office furniture and other goods. They were estimated to worth NRs.22,000 according to FUG expenditure register. The FUG had good coordinative tie with other community based organizations as well as GOs & NGOs. Thus many NGOs/GO was mobilizing the group as an entity for development. The best example is the networking by the IUCN's Gurans (Rhododendron) Conservation Project. As a group, the FUG members had attended 27 trainings and tours from different GOs/NGOs, including one national tour by IUCN. 4.1.4 Existing Livelihood Strategies:The majority of household found to be adopting agriculture as main (primary) livelihood strategies. About 36% household was based on agriculture, and an additional 28% households had adopted 'agriculture' as an occupation after retirement from army. This figure signifies the dependence on agriculture. The ratio of occupation non-agricultural households to agricultural household was found to be 13 is to 23. 37 Table 13: The Livelihood strategies of the users: Primary livelihood strategies (occupation) Secondary livelihood strategies (occupation) Occupation Households No. * Agriculture 13 Percent (%) Occupation Households No. * No. second. occupation * Wage earning 7 19.44 * Agriculture product (grain/veget able) sale * Service (GOs/NGOs /Army) * Tailor 1 2.78 2 5.56 Livestock Product sale (milk/meat) * Agriculture * Blacksmith * Ex-army (in agriculture) * Small scale Business * Others Total 36 100% 2 36 5.56 100 2 5.56 10 1 2.78 * Wageearning 2 5.56 7 19.44 5 13.89 4 11.11 8 Percent (%) 22.22 36.11 27.78 * Small scale business * NTFP business 5 13.89 3 8.33 However, the availability of nine types (including both primary and secondary) of livelihood strategies (options) indicated the diversity of occupation. Table 13 gives the views of the number of households as per their primary and secondary livelihood strategies (occupation). The wage earning, service, tailor, blacksmith and business were 38 the major off-farm livelihood strategies, contributing the major part of the household income. Agriculture though was dominant form of livelihood strategy, the contribution from agriculture on the household income was on second position. 4.3 Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) of the Study Area 4.3.1 List of the NTFPs identified in the Study Area:A cumulative list of NTFPs available from the forest and used by the local people was obtained from different sources, such as from household survey and others. The species listed were identified and verified during transect walk (participatory) in the forest. Some of the important specimen are collected. The following table shows the list of NTFPs with their uses and other descriptions like habit and habitat, found in the Study Area (not exhaustive) – Table 14 : List of NTFPs identified from the Study Area S.N. 1. Name of the species Habit (Local/Scientific) (form) Ban Lasun (Allium Herb wallichii) Nigalo (Arundinaria Bamboo (Grass) falcata) Habitat Forest clearings, shrubberies Common in low altitude, often forms impenetrable underwood. Common in Easter part, forming thickets in forests Everywhere in forest, widely cultivated. ,, Current uses by local people Fibrous roots and leaves are used as spice Stem for basketry matting and 2. 3. Malingo (Arundinaaia Maling) Bamboo (Grass) Stem for matting, roofing, fencing, leaves for fodder and tender shoot as vegetable. Stem for building purposes. 4. 5. Bans Bamboo (Grass) (Dendrocalamus spps.) Tama Bans (D. Bamboo (Grass) hamiltonii) Chutro (Berberis Shrub aristata) Pakhanved (Bergenia Herb ciliata) Lokta (Daphne Surub bholuwa) 6. 7. 8 Shrubberies Rockledges, forest Forest and Fibre from inner bark is used shrubberies in making hand-made paper. Young & tender rhizomes are pickled & eaten as vegetable Medicinal purposes, hold the potential for berberine. Rootstock for medicine 39 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Forest & Fibre for paper & ropes; also for export. shrubberies (calso cultivated) Nagbeli (Lycopodium Climber Shrubland and Spore powder sold for forest floor medicine, whole plant for clavatum) decoration. Dhingre salla (Taxus Tree Forest, shaddy Fruit edible, leaves sold for ravines, usually medicinal purposes. baccata) in understorey Siltimur Tree Forest, on Fruits eaten, fruits used in higher altitude. for Bhyagute * Charachare (Zanthoxylum (animal disease) oxyphylum) Majitho (Rubia Climber (on Climber on Stem and root used, sold for shrubs) shrubs, open dyes & medicine manjith) slopes Babiyo (Eulaliopsis Herb Open slopes Leaves used for thatch binata) Chiraito (Swertia Herb Open Slope Whole plant for medicine in multiple diseases chirayita) Boke timur Shrub/small Shrubberuies Fruits sold for essential oil tree & used for pickle (Zanthoxylum armatum) Bojho (Acorus Herb Open forest Rhizome are sold for march medicine chewed in cough. calamus) Allo (Girardinia Herb Around Bark/fibre for making drainage clothes, twigs for pigs feed. diversifolia) Ainselu (Rubus Shrub Scattered in Fruit is eaten as food. forest in open ellipticus) slopes Bhuin Ainselu Herb Forest floor Fruits are edible as food & medicine (Frageria vesca) Tite pati (Artemisia Herb Forrest floor leaves (juice) is used as (common) medicine vulgaris) Gujargano Climber Marshy site in The root is used as medicine forest in cut & bleeding, fracture. (Cissampelos pareita) Jhyau (Permelia Lichen Forest floor Edible, eaten with the blood of goat spps) Kalo Nigro Herb Around Leafy vegetable drainage (Dryothyrium boryanum) Patle (Castanopsis Tree All over forest Leaf are wrapped & smoked, fruits edible hystrix) Champ (Michelia Tree Moister sites in Flower and bark for forest medicine champaca) Kholme/Kharane Tree Under storey, Fruits edible, oil extracted forest from seeds (Symplocos spps.) Gurans Tree Near ridges Leaves to cure headache flowers to cure blood – (Rhododendron spps) dysentery Argelli (Edgeworthia Shrub gardenri) 40 29. Asare phool Tree (Lagestroemia parviflora) Sisnu (Urtica dioca) Marclia lahara Shrub Climber 30. 31. 32. 33. Dudhe lahara Climber (Trachelospermum lucidum) Chimphing Shrub in Rhizome in Bhyagute (animal) disease as medicine. Bark yield black dye Marsh, near Leaf/twigs as vegetable root drainage applied in dog-bite, wounds. Climber on Making wine trees & shrubs Understory Medicinal purposes forest Forest understorey Spice to cure animal disease. Scattered forest 4.3.2 The Potential NTFPs for rural livelihood support Though the study area (Community forest) had a number of NTFPs, not all the NTFPs were holding an equal potential to support the livelihood of local people. Some of them were just used for subsistence purpose with minor contribution. On the other hand, some others were found to be a major ‘asset’ for the livelihood of many residents. Thus, to differentiate the potential NTFPs from less potential, each NTFPs passed through an examination adopting a well developed criteria of potentiality. Those, criteria are mentioned in ‘Methodology’ section. However, some of the species got eliminated from the potentiality examination due to their restricted use and availability. The users disqualified them on the first sight as being less potential to support their livelihood. The table below shows the list of ten most potential species and their respective ‘Scores’ as per different criteria of potentiality. The score obtained by other species, are kept in the appendix 5. 41 Table 15 : The ten most potential species & their scores:Criteria \ NTFPs Chiraito Allo Lokta Nigalo Argelli Malingo Taxus Timur Nagbeli Majitho A. Economic/ Marketing 1. Market potential 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2. Competition 2 1 2 2 3 2 3 1 3 2 3. Constraints 3 1 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 4. Profitability 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 1 3 B. Ecological/ Environmental 5. Availability (in 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 1 time) 6. Availability (in 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 CF) 7. Amount of time 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 needed to find & harvest 8. Impact of 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 Harvesting on the Survival of species 9. Regenerative 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 Potential C. Social & Institutional 10. Distribution of 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 benefits 11. Contribution to 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 income 12. Experience with 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 the product 13. Potential for 2 3 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 employment creation 14. Gender Impact 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 D. Science/ Technology 15. Processing 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 1 2 Technology 16. Expertise 3 2 3 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 Required TOTAL SCORE 41 41 40 37 37 37 35 34 34 34 RANK OF 1st 1st 2nd 3rd 3rd 3rd 4th 5th 5th 5th POTENTIALITY 4.3.3 Status of the Selected Potential NTFPs The existing status of selected NTFPs was obtained by inventory records and estimating the average age of the crop. Detail information to predict annual increment for NTFP species was lacking. Thus empirically the mean annual increment (MAI) was estimated by dividing the Growing stock (density) with the estimated average age of crop. An 42 assumption is made that the 70% of the MAI is harvestable amount per annum. Beside, assumption was also made for the definition of status. The density below 1000 plants/ha was assumed poorly stocked and over 1500 plants/ha was assumed to be available for sustainable harvest. The middle figure of 1000-1500 plants/ha was assumed as intermediately stocked for sustainable harvest. The table below shows the results in detail: Table 16 :- The Growing Stock, Mean Annual Increment (MAI), Allowable Annual Harvest (AAH) and Effective Area for the Nine Potential NTFPs. S.N. Name NTFPs of the Estimated Average Age of the crop (yr) Calculated growing stock (Density) (No/ha) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) Chiraito Allo Lokta Nigalo Argelli Malingo Timur Nagbeli Majitho Taxus 2 2.5 7.5 5 10 5 4 2 2 not recorded 584 1023 564 1007 29 4921 11 (33kg) 2.1 kg 17 292 409.2 75.2 201.4 2.9 984.2 2.75 1.05 kg 8.5 204.4 286.4 52.64 140.98 2.03 688.94 1.92 (5.8 kg) 0.735 kg 5.95 370 ha 247 ha 370 ha 370 ha 370 ha 370 ha 370 ha 247 ha 370 ha MAI (No./ha) AAH by 70% of MAI (No./ha) Effective Area of Harvest The closer examination of the table reveals that allowable annual harvest is lower for the Chiraito, timur (included Boke timur & Siltimur), Argelli and Lokta. They either need conservation or innovative management. The Allo, Nialo and Malingo is available for sustainable harvest. 4.3.4 Season of Harvest of Selected Potential NTFPs:43 The ‘Seasonal Calendar’ for the selected NTFPs was prepared by the information gathered during field visit and its verification with secondary resources. Following is the outline of the seasonal calendar of harvest for selected species. The shaded portion denotes the time of harvesting. Nepali months in their abbreviated form is given in horizontal line and NTFPs in the vertical. Figure 7:- The Season of harvest for selected NTFPs. Months/ Products Chiraito Allo Lokta Nigalo Argelli Malingo Timur Nagbeli Majitho Bai Jes Asa Shr Bha Asw Kar Man Pou Mag Falg Chai 4.4 The Ecological Characteristics of Selected NTFPs 4.4.1 Chiraito Family : Gentianaceae Botanical Name : Swertia Chirayita Botanical Description: Swertia Chirayita is an erect annual herb, taller than the other chiraito species. Leaves are sessile, opposite, elliptic, pointed at the tip and 5-nerved. basal leaves are longer it is less branching than other species. Flowers are white, pale green or yellowish. The most important characteristics to distinguish it from other species are the intense bitter taste and the dark colour of the stem. (See photo 4) Ecological characteristics:Distribution : Chiraito is distributed in Himalayan regions of Nepal between the altitude 1200-3000m. However, 1900-2500 meter altitude is the best for Chiraito (PAC, 2057 B.S.). 44 Climate:- Chiraito requires temperate humid climate. It prefers high & uniform monsoon rain with partial sunlight. Higher Relative Humidity, clouds, hazes have beneficial effect upon growth of Chiraito. Chiraito can withstand drough & frost to some extent. Soil : The sandy loam (black) or loamy soil is preferred one. Burnt areas and slopes are preferred than level, land, terrace risers are good example. soil drainage and higher organic matter content is required for optimum growth. The pH range 4.7-5.5 is preferable. (PAC, 2057 B.S.). Propagation: Chiraito can be propagated from seed either by direct seeding in the field or from the seedling at the nursery beds. Uses : Chiraito (Swertia Chirayita), is a wild native plant which is a biennial herb. It is transported as raw material to India for the drug, used as the bitter. Principle and Febrifuge in ayurbedic medicine. The Limbu & Sherpa of the study area use Chiraito as a treatments for colds, coughs, fever, and stomach ailments, sore threat & bloody diarrhea. 1. Allo Family : Utricaceae Botanical Name: Girardinia diversifolia Botanical Description:- Allo is a perennial robust shrub, which grows upto 2m high, with deeply lobed saw – toothed leaves with bristles and stinging hairs and with axillary and terminal branched spikes of greenish flowers. Leaves are variable, usually with 5 lanceolate long-pointed coarsely saw – toothed lobes, blade and leaf stalk with long owl-shaped sting hairs (See photo 1) Ecological characteristics:Distribution : It is widely distributed in sub-tropical and temperate himalayas. It grows from east to west Nepal in moist habitat between the altitude 1200-3000 m. Habitat & growth: Allo – the himalayan nettle is a shade bearing hairy shrub of upto 2m height found under the tree shade of the study area. The plant grows profusely forming an impenetrable cover of stinging nettle with stender stems, one to three meters tall. Stream, banks and the gullies are the favourable sites for Allo plants. Besides, fertile and well drained soil was found to be preferable for Allo growth. 45 The growth of seedlings begins in early April and the plants may reach 4 feet high within the two months. Allo flowers in the months of August-September. As the leaves of the plant completely shed during winter seasons, Stems of Allo plants mostly harvested at this time. Uses : ‘Allo’ is a fiber yeilding plant which belongs to the middle hills of the Nepal. The inner bark of the allo has been used in the study area and other similar areas in the districts for generation for the production of fiber. This is one of the very few opportunities open to the people to increase their cash income. Harvesting:- Harvesting of Allo bark in the study area takes place in the month of October (See seasonal calendar) to December before the plant flowers. Mature thick stems are cut about 15cm above the ground. The successive stages involved in harvesting and fibre extraction are (1) Selection and Harvesting of individual stems (2) Stripping the side branches, leaves and stinging hairs from the stem. (3) Making an incision in the bark (4) Peeling/Pulling off the bark (5) Fibre extraction. Local Processing:- 46 Following are the subsequent stages of Allo processing at local level : Figure 8 : Allo processing at local level * Harvesting & peeling * Drying (for a day) Cooking the bark is cooked with ash Softening, whitening the fibre : the cooked (bunch of) fibre is mixed with ‘Kamero’ soil & rich chaff. Beating & washing Cleaning & Drying : Washed in water (1 hour) & dried Separation of fibre Spinning Weaving 3. Lokta Family : Thymelaeaceae Botanical Name : Daphne bholuwa Botanical Description:Daphne spp, Lokta or Kagate as it is generally called in the Koshi Hills is a slowgrowing shrub or small tree, evergreen or deciduous generally found as an understorey in the natural forest at higher elevations. It is an erect or spreading, evergreen or deciduous shrub, on an average 1-3m tall, but frequently attaining heights of 5-6 meteres in less exploited areas. The leaves are entire, dull green & leathery. The flowers are sweetly scented, white, flushed externally pink or purplish (See photo 3) Ecological characteristics:Distribution:- The highest densities of Daphne species are found between 2100m to 2800m on North facing slopes, though extends up to as higher as 4000m. Habitat:- Daphne is a shade tolerant species and occurs as an understorey in different types of forest. The effect of shade is to reduce competition, suppress growth and maintain a suitable moisture regime. The leaves from the trees forms a litter on the 47 forest floor, the decomposition of which provides humus and also aids in moisture retention, thus the key elements in such an environment are shade humus & moisture. They thrive on a wide range of soil types but generally favour moist sites with a rich, organic humus layer overlying well drain sandy loams or brown earth. Uses:- “Lokta” or Daphne, the Nepali paper plant is a minor forest product of Natural forests and occurs as an understorey in various types of forests at higher elevations. Traditionally, it has been used by hill farmers for making ropes and occasionally for making Nepali paper undertaken as a family enterprise. Harvesting: Lokta is usually harvested during the agricultural slack season following the festival of Dashain. harvesting is carried out on an ‘ad hoc’ basis. Generally the bark is stripped down to the rootstock and severe at ground level. Processing: (Lokta Paper Making) Pulping : The cleaned bast is boiled for 2-4 hours in a vat containing a solution of caustic soda (NaOH) @ 10-20% by weight of bast, depending on the initial cleanliness of the raw material. When the bast becomes soft enough it is put on a stone or wooden mortar and beaten with mallet or stone pestle untile reduced to a homogenous pulp. It is then placed in another vat containing pure water and stirred or agitated until it losses all ‘stringiness’ and becomes slurry of pulp. It will spread out quite easily when shaken under water. Forming Paper sheets: The slurry of pulp is poured into a frame, quantity subject to the thickness of paper required. The frame is floated in a pond of water and agitated in order to distribute the pulp evenly overs the frame forming a film of pulp. The frame is then carefully raised out of the water to allow draining without disturbing the film of the pulp. The pulp is then dried on the frame exposed to the sun for 1-2 hours. The sheet is removed from the frame, peeling it off slowly and carefully usually starting at one corner. 4.5 Constraints in the Development of NTFPs in the Study Area:A number and type of stakeholders were interacted regarding constraints in the development of NTFPs, prevailing in the study area. In addition to the national and other level constraints to the development of NTFPs subsector, following site (study area) specific constraints were found from such interactions:- 48 1. Management Strategy of CFUG: The objectives of the CF management (of the CFUG) were considering ‘income maximization’ of the community as tertiary issue; thus NTFPs had not gained the attention of CFUG for income maximization. 2. Indifferent operational plan:- No activities formally were stated for the management of NTFPs in the operational plan. Thus, the community (user group) was found operating plantation, silvicultural treatments to tree species, extracting fuelwood, timber and other forest products, but indifferent to the NTFPs management. 3. Undefined level of Harvest: Though the CFUG operational plan was found indifferent to NTFPs management, the harvesting of NTFPs was occurring on ad hoc basis. Since the CF was not yet inventoried for both the timber and non timber forest products, no harvest level existed for the NTFPs. This over turn the principle of sustainable harvest. 4. Secrecy of NFP business: Many of the respondents were found in aware of the NTFP trade. Little was known about who collected, who traded and who got benefited to them. Those who were in the business, were found to be reluctant to share their knowledge, skill and information to other members. 5. Occupational caste regime:- The collection, trade & use of NTFPs were percieved as the sole undertaking of Sherpas. Out of total households, 58 were stratified as active concerned with NTFPs, of them 80% were Sherpas’. 6. Technical and legal know-how:- The development of NTFPs was found to be constrained due to the lack of knowledge in technical and/or legal aspects of NTFP business. Limited experience in NTFP propagation or cultivation hindered the innovative farmers, and minimized their confidence. Besides, the legal status of the business was not clear to many respondents. 7. Externally controlled demand and marketing:- The ‘Basantpur’ traders were found to have control over the marketing. The harvesting of NTFPs was found to be synchronizing the demand & instructions of ‘Basantpur’ traders. 8. Marketing of unprocessed products:- Due to the ‘raw’ products export without value addition in the study area, the benefit was tapped by the downstream traders. 49 50 Chapter 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusions: The assessment of Basic Human Need indicators and livelihood assets of the forest user group revealed the fact that majority of people were living under deprivation. More than half of the residents were under some sort of deficiency in their food, house and clothes. Most of the users had adopted agriculture as major livelihood strategy. The dependency on agriculture was high, even though ‘agriculture’ alone was not sufficient to sustain the livelihood of local people. The adoption of other livelihood strategies in addition to the agriculture indicated the nature of agriculture as for subsistence only. In addition, the lower level landholding of multiple users indicated the ‘fragmented’ agriculture, with marginalised productivity. Though the number of livestock holding seemed satisfactory, the contribution of livestock to mean annual income was insignificant; and not extending beyond a fraction of ten to any wealth class. The income status of poor wealth class people was found near or below the stated national minimum income line (Rs.4404.00, in 1996 A.D.). The marginalised Productivity of agriculture (including livestock) and deprived livelihood conditions had pushed the local people to be more dependent on the traditional natural capitals such as forests. The evolution of CF regime in the area had ensured the availability of forest products, resulting in eased livelihoods of local people. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) were one of the group of products from forests. Though the result of household survey outlined a minimum number of people adopting NTFPs business to make income, this could not be taken as a generalization. Only people from proper ethnic group (Sherpas) undertook the profession and benefits. However, there remained a potentiality to disperse the benefits from NTFP management in larger sector of community, particularly for poverty alleviation. The community forest was endowed with a greater number of NTFPs. Some of them were used for subsistence & traditional rural medicine, others were holded with an immense potential to support the livlihoods of local people. A screening of NTFPs that hold the potential to support the livlihood of rural people, outlined many NTFPs 51 as potential. Chiraito, Allo, Lokta, Nigalo, Argelli, Malingo, Dhingre Salla, Timur (both boke & Siltimur), Nagbeli (Sunthanghe Lahara) and Majitho were some of the potential NTFPs of the study area. The supply status of all these NTFPs was not equal. Chiraito, Lokta, Argelli and Majitho were poorely stocked and required immediate attention for conservation. however, Nigalo, Malingo, Allo etc were available for sustainable harvest. Some factors, that were site specific identified as constraints for the NTFP development in the area. The motive of the CFUG was limited to conservation concerns, not incorporating income maximisation by ustainable utilization as management objectives. The operational plan was indifferent (no specific provision) to NTFPs management. Limited number of people were enjoying the resource without defined harvest level. In addition, the harvesting was found to be demand driven, demand was externally controlled, consequenting the higher harvesting at the time of higher demand. Despite all these constraints, the NTFPs was still considered as a prominent alternative resource for poverty alleviation in the study area. 5.2 Recommendations:Chiraito should be managed as a cash crop through CFUGs. The cultivation of chiraito should be promoted in community land as well as private land to make income and employment. Lokta harvesting should be operated on the 'Block rotation basis', the whole forests can be divided to a number of Lokta blocks as per stock level. The operational plan of the CFUG should contain a special chapter on NTFPs. The chapter must be included with the harvest level of different NTFPs and activities to manage the NTFPs. The most vulnerable households should be united under a group and they should given to chance for NTFP management / cultivation on community land. The CFUG funds should provide the low interest 'credit' for production and management of NTFPs. A suitable proportion of benefit & burden sharing should be defined for FUG and the vulnerables' sub-group. This 'credit' should be refundable overtime in many easy installments. 52 The 'open access' to any sort of NTFPs should be immediately checked and all sort of NTFP harvesting/extraction should be brought under the control of CFUGs for rural livelihood support. 53 References Aryal, M. 1993 Diverted Wealth : The trade in Himalayan herbs. Himal Magazine 6(1) : 9-18. CBS (1998). A compendium on environment statistics 1998 Nepal, CBS, Kathmandu. DDC, Tehrathum (2000), District Profile of the District. DFID (1998). Sustainable Rural Livelihood, What contribution can we make ? (edited by D. cameus) paper presented at a conference, July 1998, DFID London. DOF, 2000. Guideline for Inventory of CFs, Department of Forests, Kathmandu. Edwards, D.M. (1996) Non-Timber Forest Products from Nepal : Aspect of Trade in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. FORESC Monograph 1/96. 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IOF/ITTO, (1998), Sustainable Forest Management : Proceedings of an International Seminar, IOF/ITTO, Training and Manpower Development in C.F. Mgt. Project, Pokhara. Jackson, J.K. (1994). Manual of Afforestation in Nepal (Vol.II) Kathmandu : Forest Survey and Research Centre, 2nd edition. Kanel, K.R. (2000), Non Timber Forest Policy Issues in Nepal, Proceeding of 3rd Regional SWNN Workshop on Community Based NTFP Management, IOF/ITTO Pokhara 54 Karki, M. 2000 'Growing Opportunities from community Based Management of NTFPs..' Proceeding of the 3rd regional workshop on community based NTFP management, IOF/ITTO Pokhara. Maskey, T.M. (1995) State of Biodiversity in Nepal : In 'Banking on Biodiversity' : Report of the regional consultation on Biodiversity Assessment in the HK Himalaya (Ed. P. Shenji), ICIMOD, Kathmandu. MFSC, 2000. Nepal Biodiversity Action Plan (Draft). Ministry of Forests & Soil Conservation, Kathmandu. NUKCFP (1994), Lokta Species : The Supply Situation in the Basantpur Area, NUKCFP,. NUKCFP, 1998. "Allo Weaving as a Potential Income Generation Activity and Employment...", News & views from the field, Newsletter (NUKCFP)Number 03, August, 1998. Olesen, C.S. 1999. The Trade in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants from Central Nepal to Northern India. Economic Botany 52 (3). PAC, 2057. Chiraito Kheti Prabidhi, Pakhribas Agriculture Center, Pakhribas, Nepal. Rabindranath, S. and S. Premnath (1997) : Biomass Studies : Field Method for Monitoring Biomass, Center for Environment, Southern Regional Cell, Banglore, India. Rawal, R.B. (1997). Non-timber Forest Products : Aromatic Plants Processing & marketing in Nepal. NTFP Workshop Proceeding, Dept. of national Parks & Wildlife Conservation/World Mountain Institute, Nepal. Sanwal, M. 1988. Community Forestry, Policy Issues, Institutional arrangements and Bureaucratic Reorientation, Ambio 17(5): 342-346. Scoones, I (1998). Sustainable Rural Livelihoods : A framework for Analysis, IDS Working Paper 72, IDS. Shrestha, G.L. and B. Shrestha (1999). An Overview of Wild relatives of cultivated plants in Nepal. Proceeding of national Conference, the Green Energy Mission/Nepal, Kathmandu. Shrestha, T.B. (1994). Utilization of NTFPs MAPS, In Pradhan, J. & Maharjan, P. (eds.), National Seminar on NTFPs, MOFs and HPPCL, Kathmandu. Shrestha, T.B. (1999), "Nepal Country Report on Biological Diversity", IUCN, Nepal. 55 Shrestha, T.B. (1999) ' Nepal Country Report on Biological Diversity', IUCN, Kathmandu. Singh, B.K. 1998 CF in Nepal : "Gradual move from subsistence to montise sector of economy", Banko Jankari A Journal of Forestry information for Nepal, Vol.8 No.1 PP.46-49. Soussan, J. et al, (1998), Community Forestry in Nepal comparing policies and practice (Draft), NUKCFP, Kathmandu. 56 Appendix-1: Location Map of Terahthum District and JiriKhimti VDC in Eastern Nepal 57 Appendix-2: Map of JiriKhimti VDC & Bhusune Jiptare CF Area, Terahthum (Nepal) Tinjure $ Danda (2755m) Ambung VDC 1 = Harishe (2200m) 2 = Surke (1850m) 3 = Jirikhimti Bazar ( 1790m) 4 = Amphuwa (1710m) N Way to Basantpur & Hile uwa Ping a Khol # # Y 1 # 2 # 3 Way to Myanglung Legends Solma VDC # 4 Sabla VDC Road CF Area Cultivation/settlement Private Forest Piple VDC 2 0 2 4Miles 58 Appendix-3 : Questionnaire for Household Survey I. General Information : Name of the Respondent :Age : Education : Geographic stratum (VDC & W.N.) : Ethnicity : II. Demographic Information (a) No. of Male :No. of Female : Primary ........... (c) Other information (if any):III. Status of Basic Human Need indicators (Food, Housing and Clothing) of households 1. What is your 'food sufficiency' condition from production of own land? Sufficient for less than 6 months Sufficient for 9-12 months Sufficient for 6-9 months Sufficient for 4 year Surplus Total population : Secondary ................. Territory .............. (b) Existing Livelihood strategies : 2. How do you rank yourself in terms of given housing conditions? Limited Not adequate Just adequate Sufficient Luxurious 3. What is your adequacy of clothing Deficient Seasonally deficient Sufficient III. Status of Livelihood Assets at Individual Level of CFUG 1. Landholdings (in Ropani, 1 ropani = 1/20 ha approx.) Types of land Productive (Area) Forest Khet Bari Unproductive (Area) Kharbari Pakho Remarks (if any) 2. Livestock (LS) holding : What are the livestock that you have? S.N. 1. 2. 3. 4. Types of LS Cattle Buffalo Goat/Sheep Pig 59 Number of LS No. in cow units Remarks 5. Poultry 3. Tree holding How many trees do you possess in your own land? What are they? S.N. Species No. of Trees Remarks 4. Annual Income and Income Sources : • • What are the sources that provide you income? ................................ Would you, please, estimate your annual incomes from these specified sources? S.N. 1. 2. 3. • Sources Agriculture Livestock Off-farm sources Annual income (in NRs) Remarks Are you making income from any NTFPs or just using it as household consumption? If you are making income from NTFPs, would you mind to quantify it? V. Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) 1. Please specify the names, usage and availability of NTFPs you collect from your CF? S.N. Species Usage (at local) Always Availability Seasonal Rare Remarks 3. What is your preference over these species & why? S.N. Name of species Preference order Reasons Remarks 4. Market information : 60 4.1 What do you think about the demand of NTFPs as a whole? Increased Decreased Constant 4.2 Please list the different species utilized for selling. 1. .................. 2. ................. 3. .......................... 4.3 How do you price your items (NTFPs) ? Do you know actual market price of these items ? Yes No 4.3 If yes, please mention the price of those items : 1. .................. 2. .................. 3. ........................... 4.4 What is your market channel ? (To whom do you sell)? .................................................................................................... 4.5 Are there any constraints regarding marketing ? What are they : .................................................................................................... 5. Which species do you think can support rural livelihood and why? .................................................................................................... 1. What are the hindrances prevailing in your area in the development NTFPs? .................................................................................................... 2. Do you want to share any more information on these subjects? Please mention it. Thank you ! 61 Appendix 4 : Checklist used for In-depth Interview with different Stakeholders 1. Name, uses (current & potential) and availability of different NTFPs. 2. Potentiality of different NTFPs as a whole to support rural livelihood. 3. Ecological information, including : regeneration potential, harvesting (technique/time), climate & soil, etc on different NTFPs. 4. Marketing potential of different NTFPs 5. The collectors (in terms of ethnicity), market chains, prices (at different level) & profits (proportion at different levels) from different NTFPs. 6. Processing technologies of different NTFPs 7. Generation potential of income & employment for different NTFPs 8. Cultivation potential and requirements of different NTFPs 9. Constraints prevailing in NTFPs development & their tentative solution. 10. Others 62 Appendix 5 : The score obtained by different species in potentiality examination Criteria\NTFPs Chutr o 1. Market potential 2. Competition 3. Constraints 4. Profitability 5. Availability (in time) 6. Availability (in CF) 7. Amount of time needed to find & harvest 8. Impact of Harvesting on the Survival of species 9. Regenerative Potential 10. Distribution of benefits 11. Contribution to income 12. Experience with the product 13. Potential for employment creation 14. Gender Impact 15. Processing Technology 16. Expertise Required TOTAL SCORE RANK OF POTENTIALITY 32 7th 32 7th 29 8th 25 12th 33 6th 27 11th 28 10th 31 8th 29 9th 33 6th 3 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 3 1 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 3 1 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 1 3 3 Ban lasun 2 1 3 2 1 Pakh anved 3 2 2 2 1 Babiy o 1 2 1 1 2 Bojh o 3 2 2 2 2 Aisel u 1 2 1 1 2 Titep ati 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 3 3 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 Nigro Patle Bans 63