FILE NO CONTACT PHONE:
2001/03424
Lesley Dowling + 61 2 6250 7517
Ms Aase Tuxen The Global Mercury Assessment UNEP Chemicals 11-13, Chemin des Anémones CH-1219 Châtelaine, Geneva Switzerland Dear Ms Tuxen GLOBAL MERCURY ASSESSMENT Attached is Australia’s contribution to the UNEP global assessment of mercury and its compounds. This is in response to the letter of 10 April 2001 from Jim Willis requesting such information. Also in response to Mr Willis’ letter, I advise that Australia does not wish to nominate a member to the Working Group on Global Mercury Assessment. I regret the delay in responding and trust that this information will still be useful to you. Yours sincerely
Mark Hyman Assistant Secretary International and Intergovernmental Branch December 2001
GPO Box 787 Canberra ACT 2601 Telephone 02 6274 1111 Facsimile 02 6274 1123 The Environment Program of the Environment and Heritage Portfolio
UNEP Global Mercury Assessment - Australian Response
In response to a request from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) for national information on mercury and its compounds, this document summarises the natural and anthropogenic sources of release of mercury to the environment, current production and its use pattern in Australia.
A. Summary of existing information
See data contained in spreadsheet at Attachment A.
B. Natural and anthropogenic sources
Natural Sources Mercury (Hg) enters the environment through the weathering of rocks, gassing from soils, forest fires, emissions from geothermal regions and volcanoes. The latter two sources are significant on a global scale, but are of low importance within Australia. Natural Concentrations in the Australian Environment The main forms of mercury in the environment are ionic mercury Hg(II), elemental mercury and methylmercury. Typical concentrations in water, sediments and air are reviewed in Bowles (1998) with most mercury in natural waters associated with particulate phases resulting in very low (parts per trillion range) dissolved concentrations. A study in Tasmania (Bowles 1998, summarised in Attachment B, which is a presentation given at an international mercury conference in Rio de Janeiro in 1999) showed that methylmercury concentrations in western Tasmanian rivers and lakes were at the high end of the range of concentrations measured in other pristine areas of the world1. This was attributed to efficient methylation of naturally occurring inorganic mercury, particularly in wetland areas of the upland catchment areas, and is undoubtedly the cause of the elevated mercury concentrations found in fish from this pristine region. Aside from this work, no other studies on the cycling of mercury in Australian aquatic environments are available. Anthropogenic Sources Pirrone et al. (1996) outlines a global atmospheric mercury budget which identifies some key anthropogenic sources as coal combustion, solid waste incineration, oil production, zinc and lead production and wood combustion. However, in Oceania, lead and zinc smelting were considered to be the biggest source of atmospheric mercury. Other sources may be important in certain areas of Australia and include automobile exhausts and other mineral processing operations in which ores or rocks are crushed and heated, e.g. the National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) database (see page 2) shows alumina, cement and steel processing operations to have contributed significantly to atmospheric emissions in the 1999-2000 reporting year.
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Note that in a significant proportion of specimens of some fish species sampled in the study area, notably eels and trout, naturally occurring mercury levels exceeded the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) limit of 0.5 mg/kg and the Tasmanian limit of 1.0 mg/kg – see Mercury Concentrations in Fish in Attachment B and Table 6.1 from Bowles (1998), appended to Attachment B.
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The main global aqueous sources of mercury are releases from the chlor-alkali industry, industrial effluent and sewage. Although the use of mercury in the chlor-alkali industry is being phased out, this industry is of prime importance because of the use of mercury cell electrodes in the electrolytic process.
C. Environmental long-range transport, origin, pathways, deposition and transformation of mercury and its substances
The dominant pathway of long-range transport is atmospheric. The top 10 reported point sources of atmospheric emissions of mercury in Australia are presented in the next section and indicate that the major emissions are from mineral processing, coal burning and other industrial processes that involve heating of raw materials containing traces of mercury. The cycling of mercury in Australasian aquatic systems is addressed in Bowles (1998), including studies of cycling of mercury species in Lakes Gordon and Pedder in south-west Tasmania, Australia (as well as in Lake Murray in Western Province, Papua New Guinea). The study of Lakes Gordon and Pedder revealed the processes controlling the cycling of mercury in that region to be similar to those in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Methylation in the lake water column, dilution by precipitation and sources in the catchment were found to be important to the supply of methylmercury to these lakes, though the mechanisms involved in in-lake methylation appeared to differ from those identified in the northern hemispheric studies. Also, this system is much more isolated from anthropogenic sources of mercury than are comparable Northern Hemisphere lakes, so it appears that the relatively high methylmercury concentrations are a natural phenomenon, possibly related to lack of ice and snow cover in the Tasmanian catchments resulting in higher net methylation rates throughout the year. Supporting the view that the levels are naturally high, sediment cores have shown no clear evidence of increasing deposition of mercury in recent times.
D. Sources of release to the environment, current production and use patterns in Australia
Sources of release Australia’s National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) reports information, based on estimation techniques, on the types and amounts of certain chemicals being emitted to the environment. The NPI is a database funded by the Federal Government and available on the Internet (http://www.npi.gov.au/) through which the community, industry and governments have access to consistent and reliable information about pollutant emissions in Australia. Currently the NPI can provide data on emissions within specified air sheds, a map identifying locations of associated industries and a list of the top ten mercury emitting industries. The database was designed to satisfy community demand for such information and increase understanding of the relative environmental impact of local industry and everyday activities. Reporting of emissions is mandatory2 if an industry surpasses various use thresholds. Estimation techniques may include direct measurement (DM), mass balance (MB), engineering calculations (EC) or emission factors (EF) and the emissions data generated by their use may be of varying accuracy, depending on the technique and data used.
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Reporting for the 1998-1999 and 1999-2000 reporting years was voluntary, but from 2000-2001 onwards will be compulsory. Enforcement is the responsibility of the relevant Australian State or Territory.
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The top 10 locations and industries that emitted mercury to air, land and water from 1 July 1999 to 30 June 2000 as shown by the NPI database3 are presented in the following tables: Top 10 mercury emissions to air in Australia from 1 July 1999 to 30 June 2000. Location Air emission (kg) Mount Isa Mines Limited (Mount Isa mine, Mount Isa) 2,000 (lead/zinc/silver/copper mining, concentrating and smelting) Worsley Alumina Pty Ltd (Worsley alumina refinery, Collie) 450 Edison Mission Energy Australia Ltd (Loy Yang B coal-fired power 4404 station, Traralgon) Alcoa World Alumina - Australia (Pinjarra alumina refinery, 390 Pinjarra) Alcoa World Alumina - Australia (Kwinana alumina refinery, 320 Kwinana) Alcoa World Alumina - Australia (Wagerup alumina refinery, 300 Wagerup) Pasminco Cockle Creek Smelter (Boolaroo) (lead/zinc smelting) 300 Smorgon Steel Group Ltd (Comsteel, Mayfield West) (secondary 280 steel manufacturing) Claypave Pty Ltd (Dinmore) (clay brick manufacturing) 270 Queensland Alumina Limited (Gladstone) 240 Estimation Technique EC/MB (stack) EF (fugitive) DM EF MB MB MB DM DM (stack) EF (fugitive) EF MB
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Note that some mercury-emitting facilities have yet to report to the NPI. It is anticipated that as a result of reporting becoming compulsory from 2000-2001 onwards, more facilities will report for this and future years, giving a fuller and more accurate picture. 4 Edison Mission Energy has indicated that since reporting this figure, it has obtained direct measurement data for brown coal fired power plants and that based on this data, it has reported the annual emission of mercury from the Loy Yang B facility as 25 kg per annum for the year 2000. The data has been submitted to the Environment Protection Authority of Victoria but has yet to be verified. It is expected that other brown coal fired power plants that have not reported to the NPI would have similar, in some cases larger, emissions of mercury to air. It is expected that figures for these will appear in NPI reports for 2000-2001 and subsequent years.
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Top 10 mercury emissions to land in Australia from 1 July 1999 to 30 June 2000. Location Land emission (kg) BP Refinery (Kwinana) Pty Ltd (Kwinana refinery, Kwinana) 23 (petroleum refining) Sons of Gwalia Pty Ltd (Marvel Loch operations, Marvel Loch) 15 (gold mining/processing) Melbourne Water Corporation (Eastern treatment plant, 10 Bangholme) Yilgarn Star Pty Ltd (Yilgarn Star, via Southern Cross) (gold 4.8 mining/processing) Sons of Gwalia Pty Ltd (Leonora operations, Leonora) (gold 1.8 mining/processing) Tri-Star Petroleum Company (Fairview coal seam methane field and 1.8 compressor site, via Injune) (methane production) Groote Eylandt Mining Company (GEMCO mine site, Groote 1.6 Eylandt) (manganese mining) David Mitchell (NSW) Pty Ltd (Attunga) (limestone 1.1 quarrying/manufacturing) Oil Company of Australia Limited (Kenmore/Bodalla, Quilpie) (oil 0.92 exploration and production) Pasminco Broken Hill Mine (Broken Hill) (zinc/silver/lead mining 0.40 and production) Top 10 mercury emissions to water in Australia from 1 Jul 1999 to 30 Jun 2000. Location Water emission (kg) Beaconsfield Mine Joint Venture (Beaconsfield) (gold mining and 24 production) Melbourne Water Corporation (Western treatment plant, Werribee) 17 Water Corporation (Woodman Point wastewater treatment plant, 12 Munster) South Australian Water Corporation (Bolivar wastewater treatment 11 plant, Bolivar) Melbourne Water Corporation (Eastern treatment plant, 10 Bangholme) Pasminco Australia Limited (Lutana) (zinc smelting) 8.9 South Australian Water Corporation (Glenelg wastewater treatment 5.9 plant, Glenelg North) BP Refinery (Kwinana) Pty Ltd (Kwinana refinery, Kwinana) 5.9 (petroleum refining) Pasminco Rosebery Mine (Rosebery) (mineral sulphide mining and 5.2 concentration) Water Corporation (Subiaco wastewater treatment plant, Shenton 4.1 Park)
Estimation Technique DM EF MB EF EF EF DM/EF EC EF EC
Estimation Technique DM DM DM DM DM DM DM DM DM/EC DM
Current production and use pattern Mercury metal is not produced in Australia, although up to 5 tonnes may be produced as a byproduct of metal refining from calomel (also called mercurous chloride, Hg2Cl2, used as a purgative and insecticide). In 1996, responses to a call for information from industry on uses and quantities of mercury and mercury compounds indicated that mercury was being imported 4.
in quantities of >30 tonnes/year (not including mercury imported in batteries, lights, equipment, etc.) and some was also recycled from waste products. The major use for mercury was in cells to produce chlorine gas while other uses included dental amalgams, gold mining, scientific instruments, neon lights and in the manufacture of industrial chemicals. Small amounts were imported for the laboratory/scientific and educational markets. Also in 1996, about 4 tonnes of phenyl mercury neodecanoate were imported for use as a catalyst in polyurethane elastomers. Small amounts of mercuric chloride were imported for colour photographic paper, phenyl mercuric acetate for therapeutic uses, and other mercury compounds were used as paint preservatives. According to a 1999 survey, 21 tonnes of various mercury compounds were manufactured in Australia and 250 kg were imported. These included mercuric acetate, bromide, chloride, iodide, nitrate, oxide, thiocyanate and sulphate, which were mainly used in agricultural chemical manufacture and batteries for hearing aids, calculators and watches. Small amounts were used as laboratory reagents. Two products containing mercury are registered for use in Australia on sugarcane and horses. Shirtan Liquid Fungicide contains 120 g/L of mercury as methoxyethylmercuric chloride to control pineapple disease in sugarcane setts, which are dipped in or sprayed with a dilute solution before planting. Blestre Counter Irritant for Horses contains mercuric chloride at 3 g/L and is used topically to treat leg injuries, soreness and musculoskeletal conditions. The historic use of mercury to amalgamate gold in mining operations is of particular relevance in Australia as old sites may have high mercury contamination. Although mercury is no longer used in larger gold mining and processing operations, some small alluvial and underground mines still use it to remove free gold from concentrates. Ideally the gold amalgams containing mercury (similar to use in conventional battery manufacture) are retorted to volatilise the mercury which is then collected for re-use, but some mercury is inevitably released to the environment.
E. Prevention/control technologies and practices with associated costs and effectiveness, including suitable substitutes
Not applicable
F. Monitoring
Human exposure The recent Australia New Zealand Food Authority (ANZFA) review of the Food Standards Code provided more comprehensive data on mercury levels in food than does the regular Australian Total Diet Survey (ATDS, see next paragraphs). Estimated dietary exposures to mercury were lower than reference health standards for the general population. There was, however, cause for concern about the potential exposure to mercury for pregnant women consuming large amounts of fish with high mercury levels, because of the sensitivity of the foetus to mercury. As a result of the review, ANZFA has developed an advisory statement for pregnant women on mercury in fish (available at http://www.anzfa.gov.au/recallssafety/mercuryinfishadvisor511.cfm), in consultation with health professionals and the fishing industry.
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ANZFA also conducts surveys approximately every two years to estimate the level of dietary exposure for Australian consumers to a range of pesticide residues and contaminants through the testing of food samples representative of the total diet. The 19th ATDS, published in 2001, reports on total mercury levels in foods collected in 1998 and is available at http://www.anzfa.gov.au/mediareleasespublications/publications/19thaustraliantotald536.cfm. Table 15, which displays data on mercury levels, is at Attachment C. As Table 15 shows, seafood was the greatest source of mercury in all the diets for all agegender categories. Of the foods analysed, fish fillets had the highest level of mercury. Estimated dietary exposures to mercury for all age-gender categories are given in Appendix 1 of the ATDS. Environmental exposure The Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality 2000 and the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines list trigger values and guidelines for safe inorganic mercury levels for various water uses. These levels are presented in the following tables, which have been extracted from the Guidelines. The Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality are on the Internet at http://www.ea.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/index.html#quality and the Drinking Water Guidelines are at http://www.health.gov.au:80/nhmrc/publications/synopses/eh19syn.htm
Trigger values for fresh and marine waters at alternative levels of protection. Extracted from Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality 2000, Table 3.4.1 see http://www.ea.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/pubs/wqg-ch3.pdf
Chemical Trigger values for freshwater (µgL-1) Level of protection (% species) 99% 95% 90% 80% 0.06 0.6 1.9 C 5.4 A Trigger values for marine water (µgL-1) Level of protection (% species) 99% 95% 90% 80% 0.1 0.4 C 0.7 C 1.4 C
Mercury (inorganic)
Recommended sediment quality guidelines. Extracted from Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality 2000, Table 3.5.1 see http://www.ea.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/pubs/wqg-ch3.pdf
Contaminant Mercury (mg/kg dry wt) ISQG-Low (Trigger value) 0.15 ISQG-High 1
Agricultural irrigation water long-term trigger value (LTV), short-term trigger value (STV) and soil cumulative contaminant loading limit (CCL) triggers Extracted from Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality 2000, Table 4.2.10 see http://www.ea.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/pubs/wqg-ch4.pdf
Element Suggested soil CCL (kg/ha) 2 LTV in irrigation water (long-term use — up to 100 yrs) (mg/L) 0.002 STV in irrigation water (short-term use — up to 20 yrs) (mg/L) 0.002
Mercury
Recommended water quality trigger values (low risk) for livestock drinking water Extracted from Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality 2000, Table 4.3.2 see http://www.ea.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/pubs/wqg-ch4.pdf
Metal or metalloid Mercury Trigger value (low risk)a (mg/L) 0.002
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Toxicant guidelines for the protection of aquaculture species Extracted from Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality 2000, Table 4.4.3 see http://www.ea.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/pubs/wqg-ch4.pdf
Measured parameter Mercury Guideline (µg/L) Freshwater production Saltwater production <1 <1
Water quality guidelines for recreational purposes Extracted from Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality 2000, Table 5.2.3 see http://www.ea.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/pubs/wqg-ch5.pdf
Parameter Mercury Guideline values (µg/L, unless otherwise stated) 1
Guidelines for drinking water Extracted from Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, Guidelines for Inorganic Chemicals - see http://www.health.gov.au:80/nhmrc/publications/pdf/eh19.pdf
Chemical Mercury Guideline Values (mg/L): Health Aesthetic 0.001 None listed Comments and possible sources of contamination From industrial emissions/spills. Very low concentrations occur naturally. Organic forms most toxic, but these are associated with biota, not water.
G. Ongoing actions and future plans for controlling releases, limiting use and exposures including waste management.
Occupational Health and Safety Under the National Model Regulations for the Control of Workplace Hazardous Substances [NOHSC:1005(1994)] a manufacturer or importer of a substance supplied for use at work must determine whether the substance is hazardous. These regulations are available at www.nohsc.gov.au/OHSInformation/NOHSCPublications/fulltext/toc/H3-21.htm. The National Occupational Health and Safety Commission (NOHSC) List of Designated Hazardous Substances [NOHSC:10005(1999)] (available as a searchable database at www.nohsc.gov.au/OHSInformation/Databases/HazardousSubstances/) is used as an aid and includes mercury and several of its compounds (alkyls, dichloride, chloride, inorganic compounds except mercuric sulphide and those elsewhere specified and organic compounds except those elsewhere specified). If a substance does not appear on the List, it should be classified in accordance with NOHSC’s Approved Criteria for Classifying Hazardous Substances [NOHSC:(1008)] (available at http://www.nohsc.gov.au/OHSInformation/NOHSCPublications/fulltext/standards/nohsc1008 _toc.htm). Substances on this List are subject to the National Model Regulations for the Control of Workplace Hazardous Substances, which are implemented on a state/territory basis. There is a searchable database at http://www.nohsc.gov.au/OHSInformation/Databases/ExposureStandards/expsearch.asp for an exposure standard for mercury and certain mercury compounds. Employers must ensure that no employee is exposed to a hazardous substance above the appropriate exposure standards. The exposure standard for mercury and its inorganic divalent compounds is presently under review and a public comment document can be found at http://www.nohsc.gov.au/OHSInformation/NOHSCPublications/#24. Information on inorganic mercury scheduled for a Health Surveillance is available at www.nohsc.gov.au/ohsinformation/nohscpublications/fulltext/docs/h4/01997mer.htm.
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Employers need to provide health surveillance for an employee who in a workplace assessment process is shown to be exposed to inorganic mercury.
H. Monitoring, scientific and technical information needs and data gaps
As discussed under F, monitoring of mercury levels is carried out at the national level through the NPI and the ATDS and other surveys and at the regional level by State/Territory governments. Together with ad hoc monitoring of specific sites and media, this is currently considered adequate to cover monitoring requirements. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Centre for Advanced Analytical Chemistry has been involved in environmental mercury analysis and research for many years. In recent years it has directed its efforts toward establishing a capability for ultratrace mercury speciation analysis in waters, sediments and biological tissues and has subsequently conducted a number of state-of-the-art studies on mercury cycling in Australasian aquatic environments in collaboration with the University of Canberra (details of which are reported and discussed in Bowles (1998) and summarised in the attached presentation).
I. Literature Cited
Bowles, K.C. (1998) Mercury Cycling in Aquatic Systems. PhD thesis, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia. Pirrone, N., Keeler, G.J. and Nriagu, J.O. (1996) Regional differences in worldwide emissions of mercury to the atmosphere. Atmos. Environ. 30, 2981-2987.
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