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Integrating Reading, Math, & Science Across the Curriculum
TEACHING READING
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Reading aloud to students
Time for independent reading Exclusive stress on whole class or reading-
group activities
Students’ choice of their own reading materials Teacher selection of all reading materials for
individuals and groups
Exposing children to a wide and rich range of Relying on selections in text
literature
Teacher modeling and discussing his/her own Teacher keeping her/his own reading tastes and
reading processes habits private
Primary instructional emphasis on Primary instructional emphasis on reading sub-
comprehension skills such as phonics, word analysis,
syllabication
Teaching reading as a process: Teaching reading as a single, one-step act
Use strategies that activate prior knowledge
Help students make and test predictions
Structure help during reading
Provide after-reading applications
Social, collaborative activities with much Solitary seat work
discussion and interaction
Grouping by interests or book choices Grouping by reading level
Silent reading followed by discussion Round-robin oral reading
Teaching skills in the context of whole and Teaching isolated skills in phonics workbooks
meaningful literature or drills
Writing before and after reading Little or no chance to write
Encouraging invented spelling in student’s Punishing pre-conventional spelling in
early writings students’ early writings
Use of reading in content fields (e.g., historical Segregation of reading to reading time
novels in social studies)
Evaluation that focuses on holistic, higher Evaluation focused on individual, low level
order thinking processes sub-skills
Measuring success of reading program by Measuring the success of the reading program
student’s reading habits, attitudes, and only by test scores
comprehension
Updated: 01/05 1
TEACHING WRITING
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Student ownership and responsibility by: Teacher control of decision-making by:
Helping students choose their own topics Teacher deciding on all writing topics
and goals for improvement Suggestions for improvements dictated by
Using brief teacher-student conferences teacher
Teaching students to review their own Learning objectives determined by teacher
progress alone
Instruction given as whole-class activity
Class time spent on writing whole, original Class time spent on isolated sub-skills through:
pieces through: Drills on grammar, vocabulary, spelling,
Establishing real purposes for writing, and paragraphing, penmanship, etc.
students’ involvement in the task Writing assignments given briefly, with no
Instruction in and support for all stages of context or purpose, completed in one step
writing process
pre-writing, drafting, revising, editing
Teacher modeling writing—drafting, revision, Teacher talks about writing but never writes or
sharing—as a fellow author and as shares own work
demonstrator of processes
Learning of grammar and mechanics in context Isolated grammar lessons given in order
at the editing stage and as items are needed determined by textbook before writing is
begun
Writing for real audiences, publishing for the Assignments read only by teacher
class and for wider communities
Making the classroom a supportive setting for Devaluation of students’ ideas through:
shared learning, using Students viewed as lacking knowledge and
Active exchange and valuing of student’s language abilities
ideas Sense of class as competing individuals
Collaborative small-group work Work with fellow students viewed as
Conferences and peer critiquing that give cheating, disruptive
responsibility for improvement to authors
Writing across the curriculum as a tool for Writing taught only during “language arts”
learning period—i.e., infrequently
Constructive and efficient evaluation that Evaluation as negative burden for teacher and
involves: student by:
Brief informal oral responses as students Marking all papers heavily for all errors,
work making teacher a bottleneck
Thorough grading of just a few of student- Teacher editing paper, and only after
selected, polished pieces completed, rather than student making
Focus on a few errors at a time improvements
Cumulative view of growth and self- Grading seen as punitive, focused on errors
evaluation not growth
Encouragement of risk taking and honest
expression
Updated: 01/05 2
TEACHING MATHEMATICS
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TEACHING PRACTICES TEACHING PRACTICES
Use of manipulative materials Rote practice
Cooperative group work Rote memorization of rules and formulas
Discussion of mathematics Single answers and single methods to find
Questioning and making conjectures answers
Justification of thinking Use of drill worksheets
Writing about mathematics Repetitive written practice
Problem-solving approach to instruction Teaching by telling
Content integration Teaching computation out of context
Use of calculators and computers Stressing memorization
Being a facilitator of learning Testing for grades only
Assessing learning as an integral part of Being the dispenser of knowledge
instruction
MATHEMATICS AS PROBLEM SOLVING MATHEMATICS AS PROBLEM SOLVING
Word problems with a variety of structures Use of cue words to determine operation to
and solution paths be solved
Everyday problems and applications Practicing routine, one-step problems
Problem-solving strategies Practicing problems categorized by types
Open-ended problems and extended
problem-solving projects
Investigating and formulating questions
from problem situations
MATHEMATICS AS COMMUNICATION MATHEMATICS AS COMMUNICATION
Discussing mathematics Doing fill-in-the-blank worksheets
Reading mathematics Answering questions that need only yes or
Writing mathematics no responses
Listening to mathematical ideas Answering questions that need only
numerical responses
MATHEMATICS AS REASONING MATHEMATICS AS REASONING
Drawing logical conclusions Relying on authorities (teacher, answer
Justifying answers and solution processes key)
Reasoning inductively and deductively
MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS
Connecting mathematics to other subjects Learning isolated topics
and to the real world Developing skills out of context
Connecting topics within mathematics
Applying mathematics
Updated: 01/05 3
TEACHING MATHEMATICS
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NUMBERS/OPERATIONS/COMPUTATION NUMBERS/OPERATIONS/COMPUTATION
Developing number and operation sense Early use of symbolic notation
Understanding the meaning of key Complex and tedious paper and pencil
concepts, such as place, value, fractions, computations
decimals, ratios, proportions, and percents Memorizing rules and procedures without
Using various estimation strategies understanding
Thinking strategies for basic facts
Using calculators for complex calculation
GEOMETRY/MEASUREMENT GEOMETRY/MEASUREMENT
Developing spatial sense Memorizing facts and relationships
Actual measuring and the concepts related Memorizing equivalencies between units of
to units of measure measure
Using geometry in problem solving Memorizing geometric formulas
STATISTICS/PROBABILITY STATISTICS/PROBABILITY
Collecting and organizing data Memorizing formulas
Using statistical methods to describe,
analyze, evaluate, and make decisions
PATTERNS/FUNCTIONS/ALGEBRA PATTERNS/FUNCTIONS/ALGEBRA
Recognizing and describing patterns Manipulating symbols
Identifying and using functional Memorizing procedures and drilling
relationships
Developing and using tables, graphs, and
rules to describe situations
Using variables to express relationships
EVALUATION EVALUATION
Having assessment be an integral part of Having assessment be simply counting
teaching correct answers on tests for the sole
Focusing on a broad range of mathematical purpose of assigning grades
tasks, and taking a holistic view of Focusing on a large number of specific and
mathematics isolated skills
Developing problem situations that require Using exercises or word problems
applications of a number of mathematical requiring only one or two skills
ideas Using only written tests
Using multiple assessment techniques,
including written, oral, and demonstration
formats
Updated: 01/05 4
TEACHING SCIENCE
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Hands-on activities that include: Instruction based mainly on lecture and
Students identifying their own real information given that:
questions about natural phenomena depends on textbooks and lock-step
Observation activity, often designed by patterns of instruction
students, aimed at real discovery, includes cookbook labs in which students
employing a wide range of process skills follow steps without a purpose or question
Students hypothesizing to explain data of their own
Information provided to explain data only depends on questions, concepts, and
after students have engaged in investigation answers provided only by the teacher
processes treats students as if they have no prior
Students’ reflection to realize concepts and knowledge or investigative abilities
processes learned
Application, either to social issues or
further scientific questions
Focusing on underlying concepts about how Memorizing detailed vocabulary, definitions,
natural phenomena are explained and explanations without thorough connection
to broader ideas
Questioning, thinking, and problem solving, Science approached as a set body of
especially: knowledge with all answers and information
Being skeptical, willing to question already known
common beliefs
Accepting ambiguity when data isn’t Attempts to correct student misconceptions by
decisive direct instruction
Willing to modify explanations, open to
changing one’s opinion
Using logic, planning inquiry,
hypothesizing, inferring
Active application of science learning to Isolation of science from the rest of students’
contemporary technological issues and social lives
choices
In-depth study of a few important thematic Superficial coverage of many topics according
topics to an abstract scope and sequence
Curiosity about nature and positive attitudes Sense that only a few brilliant students can
toward science for all students, including enjoy or succeed in science
females and members of minority groups
Integration of reading, writing, and math in Activity limited to texts, lectures, and multiple-
science unit choice quizzes
Collaborative small-group work, with training Students working individually, competitively
to ensure it is efficient and includes learning
for all group members
Teacher facilitating students’ investigative Teacher only as expert in subject matter
steps
Evaluation that focuses on scientific concepts, Testing focused only on memorization of
processes, and attitudes detail, ignoring thinking skills, process skills,
attitudes
Updated: 01/05 5
TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES
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In-depth study of topics in each social studies Cursory coverage of lock-step curriculum that
field in which students make choices about includes everything but allows no time for
what to study and discover the complexities of deeper understanding of topics
human interaction
Emphasis on activities that engage students in Memorization of isolated facts in textbooks
inquiry and problem solving about significant
human issues
Student decision-making and participation in Isolation from the actual exercise of
wider social, political, and economic affairs, so responsible citizenship; emphasis only on
that they share a sense of responsibility for the reading about citizenship or future
welfare of their school and community participation in the larger social and political
world
Participation in interactive and cooperative Lecture classes in which students sit passively
classroom study process that brings together
students of all ability levels Classes in which students of lower ability
levels are deprived of the knowledge and
learning opportunities that other students
receive
Integration of social studies with other areas of Narrowing social studies activity to include
the curriculum only textbook reading and test taking
Richer content in elementary grades, building Assumption that students are ignorant or
on the prior knowledge children bring to social uninterested in issues raised in social studies
studies topics including:
Concepts from psychology, sociology, Postponement of significant curriculum until
economics, and political science, as well as secondary grades
geography and history
American social institutions
Issues for social groups
The environment that surrounds them
Students’ valuing and sense of connection with Use of curriculum restricted to only one
American and global history, the history and dominant cultural heritage
culture of diverse social groups, and the
environment that surrounds them
Students’ inquiry about the cultural groups Use of curriculum that leaves students
they belong to and others represented in their disconnected from and unexcited about social
school and community to promote students’ studies topics
sense of ownership in the social studies
curriculum
Use of evaluation that involves further learning Assessments only at the end of a unit or
and that promotes responsible citizenship and grading period; assessments that test only
open expression of ideas factual knowledge or memorization of
textbook information
Updated: 01/05 6
EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT
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The use of formative evaluations/assessments The use of summative evaluations that quantify
to understand student growth and direct what has been learned up to a given point to
instruction to increase their learning score students against each other
Use of evaluations that provide descriptive or Use of evaluations that produce scores or
narrative information to student and parents numerical grades
Students’ involvement in record-keeping and The role of the teacher as the sole evaluator of
evaluating their own work student work and keeper of the grades
Use of varied assessments to evaluate students Use of multiple-choice, true-false tests at the
from many angles by drawing on observations, end of units or grading periods to produce a
conversations, performances, etc. record of student learning
Integration of evaluations and assessments into Use of paper/pencil assessments as primary
instruction through: tool and evaluations only at end of units or as
Teacher-student conferences isolated activities
Learning logs
Student self-evaluation
Student records/reflections on work
Questionnaires
Performances to demonstrate learning
Open-response questions
Projects with several interval products
Peer conferencing
Quality of information from evaluations/ Use of assessments that give too little
assessments of learning and needs so they may information about student learning and needs
be used in moderation to prevent consuming Use of assessments for purposes other than
too much instructional or professional time increasing student learning
Use of grading systems that emphasize and Competitive, norm-referenced grading systems
support mastery of content/processes/skills.
Emphasis on criterion-referenced grading
systems with standards defined through
established performance levels for
demonstrating knowledge of content,
processes, and skills
Student conferencing to discuss student Students receive all information about growth
learning, growth, and needs and needs from numerical scores on work,
assessments, grade reports
Parent conferencing to communicate student Parents receive all information about student
learning, growth, and needs progress and needs from numerical grades on
Parent programs to help community members papers, assessments, and grade reports
understand the value of new approaches
Updated: 01/05 7
ACROSS CONTENT AREAS
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Experiential, inductive, hands-on learning Whole-class, teacher-directed instruction, e.g.,
lecturing
Active learning in the classroom signified by Student passivity: sitting, listening, receiving,
increased student conversation, movement, and absorbing information
collaboration, doing, experiencing, and Prizing and rewarding silence in the classroom
performing
Emphasis on higher order thinking; learning a Classroom time devoted to fill-in-the-blank
field’s key concepts and principles worksheets, workbooks, or other seat work
Deep study of a smaller number of topics, so Attempts to cover large amounts of material in
that students internalize the field’s way of a superficial way to complete all the chapters
inquiry in the textbook
Time devoted to reading whole, original, real Time devoted to reading textbooks and basal
books and nonfiction material readers
Responsibility transferred to students for their Emphasis on competition and grades over
work: goal setting, record keeping, learning
monitoring, evaluation
Choice for students, e.g., picking their own Teacher-directed activities
books, writing topics, team partners, research
projects
Enacting and modeling of the principles of Actions and decisions that do not include
democracy in school; involving students in student input
decisions that affect them
Attention to affective needs and the varying Emphasis on one instructional style and
cognitive styles of individual students strategies that are not differentiated
Cooperative, collaborative activity; developing Emphasis on independent or individual work
the classroom as an interdependent community products
Heterogeneously grouped classrooms where Tracking or leveling students into “ability
individual needs are met through inherently groups”
individualized activities, not segregation of
bodies
Delivery of special help to students in regular Pull-out special programs
classrooms
Reliance upon teachers’ descriptive evaluation Use of and reliance on standardized tests
of student growth, including qualitative/
anecdotal observations
Updated: 01/05 8
UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS AND THEORIES
OF BEST PRACTICES
Principle Description of Theory
Child-centered The best starting point for schooling is kids’ real interests; all
across the curriculum, investigating students’ own questions
should always take precedence over studying arbitrarily and
distantly selected “content.”
Experiential Active, hands-on concrete experience is the most powerful and
natural form of learning. Students should be immersed in the most
direct possible experience of the content of every subject.
Reflective Balancing the immersion in direct experience must provide
opportunities for learners to look back, to reflect, to debrief, to
abstract from their experiences what they have felt and thought
and learned.
Authentic Real, rich, complex ideas and materials are at the heart of the
curriculum. Lessons or textbooks that water down, control, or
oversimplify content ultimately disempower students.
Holistic Students learn best when they encounter whole, real ideas, events,
and materials in purposeful contexts and not by studying subparts
isolated from actual use.
Social Learning is always socially constructed and often interactional;
teachers need to create classroom interactions that “scaffold”
learning.
Collaborative Cooperative learning activities tap the social power of learning
better than competitive and individualistic approaches.
Democratic The classroom is a model community; students learn what they
live as citizens of the school.
Cognitive The most powerful learning for children comes from developing
true understanding of concepts and higher order thinking
associated with various fields of inquiry and self-monitoring of
their thinking.
Developmental Children grow through a series of definable but not rigid stages;
schooling should fit its activities to the developmental level of
students.
Constructivist Children do not just receive content; in a very real sense, they
recreate and re-invent every cognitive system they encounter,
including language, literacy, and mathematics.
Updated: 01/05 9
Psycholinguistic The process of young children’s natural oral language acquisition
provides our best model of complex human learning, and, once
learned, language itself becomes the primary tool for more
learning, whatever the subject matter.
Challenging Students learn best when faced with genuine challenges, choices,
and responsibility in their own learning.
Updated: 01/05 10
